Коммерциялық емес акционерлік қоғам

АЛМАТЫ ЭНЕРГЕТИКА ЖӘНЕ БАЙЛАНЫС УНИВЕРСИТЕТІ

Шетел тілдері кафедрасы

АҒЫЛШЫН ТІЛІ

Техникалық мәтіндерді қазақ тіліне аударуға және оқу дағдыларын дамытуға арналған әдістемелік нұсқау

(5В071800 - «Электр энергетика» мамандығы студенттері үшін)

Алматы 2011

ҚҰРАСТЫРУШЫЛАР: Г.С. Ахетова., С.А. Есенжолова АҒЫЛШЫН ТІЛІ. Техникалық мәтіндерді қазақ тіліне аударуға және оқу дағдыларын дамытуға арналған әдістемелік нұсқау (5В071800 - «Электр энергетика» мамандығы студенттері үшін) – Алматы. АЭжБУ, 2011. – 29б.

Әдістемелік нұсқау 5В071800 - «Электр энергетика» мамандығы студенттерінің техникалық мәтіндерді оқу және аудару дағдыларын арттыруға арналған. Бұл нұсқауда арнайы іріктеліп алынған техникалық мәтіндер және сол мәтіндерді жан-жақты қарастыруға арналған жаттығулар берілген.

Пікір жазушы: ШТ каф. меңг., фил.ғыл.канд., доцент Х.А. Нурходжаева

«Алматы энергетика және байланыс университеті» Коммерциялық емес акционерлік қоғамның жоспары бойынша 2011ж. басылған

Жоспар 2011ж., реті- 297

Әдістемелік нұсқау студенттердің оқу және аудару дағдыларын жетілдіруге арналған. Бұл нұсқауда арнайы іріктеліп алынған техникалық мәтіндер және сол мәтіндерді жан-жақты қарастыруға арналған жаттығулар берілген. Әдістемелік нұсқауды сабақта және студенттердің өз бетімен жұмысында пайдалануға болады.

Мәтіннің мазмұнын анық түсіну үшін әрбір мәтінге жаңа сөздіктер беріліп, сұрақтар қойылған.

Әдістемелік құралдың мақсаты – техникалық мәтіндерді оқу және аудару дағдыларын жетілдіру және де оларды сөздік көмегімен оқи және аудара білуге даярлау.

Бұл әдістемелік нұсқау баспаға ұсынылады.

The Sun is the energy source!

The Sun - is the main source of energy on the Earth. Solar energy is not only inexhaustible and free, but also environmentally cleaner of any of the available human energy. The carrier of solar energy it's radiation. It consists of visible light rays and the invisible ultraviolet and infrared radiation. Another advantage of solar energy is its accessibility; every corner on the Earth receives solar energy. Quantity of energy received on a daily basis, it depends on geographic location and climatic conditions, but its practical use is possible everywhere. Among the ways of use of solar energy for domestic purposes the most important are the following: hot water, space heating, heating swimming pools, getting electric energy. Considering that the prices of different fuels are constantly increasing, the investment of funds in solar power systems (solar water system) is a very profitable investment for many years in future. We sell and installed solar water heating systems (Solar) on the basis of solar vacuum collectors. Solar energy is recognized as one of the most promising alternative energy in the world. The great importance for the future is the construction of houses fully supplied with alternative energy sources or the installation of such stations in existing buildings. And wonder if you have ever spent much money on something that you could use an elementary appliances in your house and what a damage of such pleasure? To ensure that electricity supply into the socket it is needed to get coal or oil, to bring them to power plants to burn oxygen, get steam, to put him through a steam turbine to the generator, file through a transformer in the high-voltage line in the areas of consumption, reduce through transformers the voltage to domestic 220 V, 50 Hz, sent to the home by wire or cables to pass through the energy meter and only then take to the sockets and switches. Throughout this long route of electricity there is lost up to half of the energy generated by power plants, which loses more than half of the fuel energy. As a result, the end user receives no more than 20 - 25% of fuel energy, the remaining 75 - 80% of the warming atmosphere, accelerating its global warming. Kazakhstan is working on all major aspects of solar energy, and doesn't lag behind the world level.

In Kazakhstan, the same potential of solar radiation on the territory of the republic is quite significant and 1300-1800 kVt.ch/m2.god. In connection with the continental climate, the number of sunny hours per year is - 2200-3000. The climate is characterized by a large number of clear days (especially in summer), high temperatures and low rainfall during the year. So as the territory of Kazakhstan is located in the "sun belt", the country has a great chance to succeed in the field of solar energy and to become the world's leader by this index! Alternative energy – important and diverse problem for Kazakhstan.

1-жаттығу. Мәтіндегі жаңа сөздермен техникалық терминдердің оқылуына назар аударыңыздар.

solar energy ['səulə 'enəʤɪ], alternative energy [ɔ:l'tɜ:nətɪv 'enəʤɪ], socket ['sɔkɪt], high-voltage [haɪ 'vəultɪʤ], power-plant ['pauə plɑ:nt], radiation ['reɪdɪ'eɪʃən], non-renewable [ nɔn rɪ'nju:əbl], renewable [ rɪ'nju:əbl], oxygen ['ɔksɪʤən], wood-burning [wud 'bɜ:nɪŋ], conductor [kən'dʌktə], circuit ['sɜ:kɪt], electric charges [ɪ'lektrɪk ʧɑ:ʤ], to transfer [træns'fɜ:], warming ['wɔ:mɪŋ], inexhaustible [ֽɪnɪg'zɔ:stəbl], climate ['klaɪmət], rainfall ['reɪnfɔ:l], generator ['ʤenəreɪtə], electricity [ɪlek'trɪsətɪ], ultraviolet [ֽʌltrə'vaɪələt], turbine ['tɜ:baɪn].

2-жаттығу. Төменде берілген сөз тіркестерінің баламасын табыңыздар.

a great chance to succeed in, fully supplied, to ensure electricity supply, energy generated, global warming, purification of superconductors, desalination of salt water, the flow of power, the same potential of solar radiation, to create energy, solar energy, enable to transfer, a steam turbine, main source, areas of consumption, to become the world's leader, the continental climate.

жетістікке жетуге жақсы жағдай, толығымен қамтамасыздандырылған, электр тоғының тасымалдануын қамтамасыздандыру, жоғары өткізгіштің тазаруы, тасымалдаушыға көмектесу, әлемдік жылу, бу турбинасы, тұзды судың тұщыландырылуы, қуаттың (күштің) ағыны, тұтынушы аймақтар, басты қайнар көз, қуатты жасау, әлемнің алдыңғы қатарында болуы, континенттік климат, күн энергиясы.

3-жаттығу. Мәтіндегі жаңа сөздермен техникалық термин сөздігі.

- steam – бу

- electricity – электр тоғы

- source – қайнар көз

- climate – климат, ауа райы

- oxygen – оттегі

- electric charge – электр заряды

- high-voltage – жоғарғы кернеу

- Alternative energy – айнымалы тоқ (энергия)

- fuel – отын, жанармай

- consumption – тұтыну

- ultraviolet – ультракүлгін

- wire – сым

4-жаттығу. Төмендегі берілген сұрақтарға жауап беріңіздер.

1) What is the main source of energy on the Earth?

2) What is advantage of the solar energy?

3) Can we use solar energy directly?

4) What does “sun belt” mean?

5) Why do we lose half of fuel energy?

5-жаттығу. Мәтіндегі ырықсыз етісте тұрған сөйлемдерді аударыңыз.

1) Solar energy is recognized as one of the most promising alternative energy in the world.

2) The climate is characterized by a large number of clear days (especially in summer), high temperatures and low rainfall during the year.

3) So as the territory of Kazakhstan is located in the "sun belt", the country has a great chance to succeed in the field of solar energy and to become the world's leader by this index!

6-жаттығу. Төмендегі берілген сөйлемдерді аяқтаңыздар.

1. The carrier of solar energy	a) as one of the most promising alternative energy in the world.
2. Kazakhstan is working	b) important and diverse problem for Kazakhstan.
3. Alternative energy	c) and the invisible ultraviolet and infrared radiation.
4. Solar energy is recognized	d) it's radiation.
5. It consists of visible light rays	e) on all major aspects of solar energy.

7-жаттығу. Төмендегі берілген сөздердің дефинициясын аударып оны есте сақтаңыздар.

Generator. A machine that converts mechanical power into electric power.

Source. That which supplies signal power to a transducer or system.

What is electrical energy?

Electrical energy is not generally referred to as electrical energy for the layperson, and is most commonly known as electricity. Electrical energy is the scientific form of electricity, and refers to the flow of power or the flow of charges along a conductor to create energy. Electrical energy is known to be a secondary source of energy, which means that we obtain electrical energy through the conversion of other forms of energy. These other forms of energy are known as the primary sources of energy and can be used from coal, nuclear energy, natural gas, or oil. The primary sources from which we create electrical energy can be either non-renewable forms of energy or renewable forms of energy. Electrical energy however is neither non-renewable or renewable.

Electrical energy is a standard part of nature, and today it is our most widely used form of energy. Many towns and cities were developed beside waterfalls which are known to be primary sources of mechanical energy. Wheels would be built in the waterfalls and the falls would turn the wheels in order to create energy that fueled the cities and towns. Before this type of electrical energy generation was developed, homes would be lit with candles and kerosene lamps, and would be warmed with coal or wood-burning stoves.

Benjamin Franklin and the famous story of a kite on a stormy evening was the first to discover the initial principles of electrical energy. Thomas Edison came along to perfect these principles with the invention of the light bulb. Following this, Nikola Tesla developed the notion of AC electrical energy, which referred to as alternating current electrical energy. With AC energy, electrical energy could be transmitted over much larger distances. With this discovery, electrical energy could then be used to light homes and to power machines that would be more effective at heating homes as well.

It is important to understand that electrical energy is not a kind of energy in and of itself, but it is rather a form of transferring energy from one object or element to another. The energy that is being transferred is the electrical energy. In order for electrical energy to transfer at all, it must have a conductor or a circuit that will enable the transfer of the energy. This is what Benjamin Franklin discovered when the electrical energy was transferred from the lightning to his kite, with the kite acting as his conductor or circuit. Electrical energy will occur when electric charges are moving or changing position from one element or object to another. When the electrical energy is moved, it is frequently stored in what we know of today as batteries or energy cells.

1-жаттығу. Мәтіндегі жаңа сөздермен техникалық терминдердің оқылуына назар аударыңыздар.

standard ['stændəd], beside [bɪ'saɪd], waterfall ['wɔ:təfɔ:l], source [sɔ:s], wheel [wi:l], kerosene ['kerəsi:n], generation [ֽʤenə'reɪʃən], fuel [fju:əl], alternating ['ɔ:ltəneɪtɪŋ], invention [ɪn'venʃən], transfer [træns'fɜ:], circuit ['sɜ:kɪt], lighting ['laɪtɪŋ], unpredictability [ֽʌnprɪ'dɪktəblətɪ], exist [ɪg'zɪst], inefficient [ֽɪnɪ'fɪʃənt], elaborate [ɪ'læbərɪt], substance ['sʌbstəns], combustion [kəm'bʌsʧən], fission ['fɪʃən], roughly ['rʌflɪ], kite [kaɪt], initial [ɪ'nɪʃəl], element ['elɪmənt], bulb [bʌlb], coal [kəul].

2-жаттығу. Төменде берілген сөз тіркестерінің баламасын табыңыздар.

a secondary source of energy, mechanical energy, the initial principles of electrical energy, a standard part of nature, in order to create energy, it is important to understand, moving or changing position, more effective at heating home

энергияның екінші дәрежелі қайнар көзі, механикалық энергия, табиғаттың стандартты бөлігі, энергияны жасау үшін, электр энергиясының бастапқы заңы, мұны түсіну маңызды, қозғалмалы және ауыспалы қалыпта, тұрғын үй жылуына тиімдірек.

3-жаттығу. Мәтіндегі жаңа сөздермен техникалық термин сөздігі.

- waterfall – сарқырама

- primary source - алғашқы қайнар көзі

- mechanical energy - механикалық қуат

- a stormy evening - дауылды кеш

- notion – түсінік, мағына

- frequently – жиі

- dissipate – қысым түсіру

- unpredictability – болжай алмайтын

- moving parts – қозғалмалы бөлшек

- excessively inefficient – мүлдем икемсіз

- combustion – жану

- fossil fuels – қазба жанармайы

- nuclear fission – ядроның бөлінуі

- derive – шығару, жасау

4-жаттығу. Төменде берілген сөйлемдерге арнайы сұрақтар жазыңыздар.

1) Thomas Edison came along to perfect these principles with the invention of the bulb.

2) Electrical energy will occur when electric charges are moving or changing its position changing.

3) The steam is generated with heat from combustion of fossil fuels or from nuclear fission.

5-жаттығу. Туынды сөздердің түбірін тауып жазыңыздар.

batteries, frequently, inefficient, dissipated, lighting, invention, fueled, burning, excessively, unpredictability, majority, heating.

6-жаттығу. Мәтіндегі ырықсыз етісі бар сөйлемдерді теріп жазып оның аудармасына назар аударыңыз.

Үлгі: Electrical energy could be transmitted over much larger distances.

Электр жарығы үлкен ара қашықтықтарға жіберілген.

Alternative Energy Sources

Fuel cells develop electricity by direct conversion of hydrogen, hydrocarbons, alcohol, or other fuels, with an efficiency of 50% to 60%. Although they have been used to produce electric power in space vehicles and some terrestrial locations, several problems have kept them from being widely used. Most important, the catalyst, which is an important component of a fuel cell, especially one that is operating at around room temperature, is very expensive. Controlled nuclear fusion could provide a virtually unlimited source of heat energy to produce steam in generating plants; however, many problems surround its development, and no appreciable contribution is expected from this source in the near future.

Solar energy has been recognized as a feasible alternative. It has been suggested that efficient collection of the solar energy incident on 14% of the western desert areas of the United States would provide enough electricity to satisfy current demands. Two main solar processes could be used. Photovoltaic cells convert sunlight directly into electrical energy. Another method would use special coatings that absorb sunlight readily and emit infrared radiation slowly, making it possible to heat fluids to 1,000°F (540°C) by solar radiation. The heat in turn can be converted to electricity. Some of this heat would be stored to allow operation at night and during periods of heavy cloud cover. The projected efficiency of such a plant would be about 30%, but this fairly low efficiency must be balanced against the facts that energy from the sun costs nothing and that the waste heat from such a plant places virtually no additional burden on the environment. The principal problem with this and other exotic systems for generating electricity is that the time needed for their implementation may be considerable.

Windmills, once widely used for pumping water, have become viable for electric-power generation because of advances in their design and the development of increasingly efficient generators. Windmill “farms,” at which rows of windmills are joined together as the source of electrical energy, serve as a significant, though minor, source of electrical energy in coastal and plains areas. However, the vagaries of the wind make this a difficult solution to implement on a large scale.

1-жаттығу. Мәтіндегі жаңа сөздермен техникалық терминдердің оқылуына назар аударыңыздар.

conversation [ֽkɔnvə'seɪʃən], hydrogen ['haɪdrəʤən], efficiency [ɪ'fɪʃənsɪ], vehicle ['vi:ɪkl], catalyst ['kætəlɪst], especially [ɪs'peʃəlɪ], nuclear ['nju:klɪə], fusion ['fju:ʒən], surround [sə'raund], appreciable [ə'pri:ʃəbl], contribution [ֽkɔntrɪ'bju:ʃən], alternative [ɔ:l'tɜ:nətɪv], infrared [ֽɪnfrə'red], implementation [ֽɪmplɪmen'teɪʃən], wind mind [wɪnd maɪnd], significant [sɪg'nɪfɪkənt], pump [pʌmp] hydrocarbon [ֽhaɪdrəu'kɑ:bən], although [ɔ:l'ðəu], temperature ['tempərəʧə], source [sɔ:s], enough [ɪ'nʌf], process ['prəuses], convert ['kɔnvɜ:t], recognize ['rekəgnaɪz], solution [sə'lu:ʃən], radiation [ֽreɪdɪ'eɪʃən], waste [weɪst].

2-жаттығу. Төменде берілген сөз тіркестерінің баламасын табыңыздар.

alternative energy sources, space vehicles, terrestrial locations, component of a fuel cell, appreciable contribution, efficient collection, satisfy current demands, photovoltaic cells, special coating, infrared radiation, waste heat, additional burden, pumping water, on a large scale, the vagaries of the wind, difficult solution, nuclear fusion, unlimited source of a heat.

энергия қайнарының баламасы, маңызды үлес, жерасты қазбалары, қанағаттандырарлық талаптар ағыны, пайдаланылған жылу, жанармай бөліктері, нәтижелі жиынтық, фотоэлектрлік түрлендіргіш, арнайы төсем, суды тасымалдаушы сорап, күрделі шешім, инфрақызыл сәуле шығырушы, орасан зор қарқын, ысырап болған жылулық, желдің құбылмалылығы, ғарыш кемелері, ядролық синтез, жылудың шексіз қайнар көзі.

3-жаттығу. Мәтіндегі жаңа сөздермен техникалық термин сөздігі.

- catalyst – катализатор

- hydrogen – сутегі

- space vehicles – ғарыш кемелері

- contribution – үлес

- sunlight – күн сәулесі

- fluid – сұйықтық

- nuclear – ядро

- solution – шешім

- collection – жиынтық

- coastal – жағалық

4-жаттығу. Төмендегі берілген сұрақтарға жауап беріңіздер.

1) What is the function of photovoltaic cells?

2) What is an important component of a fuel cell?

3) Is it possible to heat fluids to 1`000 º F by solar radiation?

4) What alternative sources of energy do you know?

5) Why was used a special coating?

5-жаттығу. Төмендегі берілген етістіктерді сөз таптарына түрлендіріңіздер.

develop, direct, use, produce, locate, generate, radiate, operate, consider, implement, add, satisfy.

6-жаттығу. Төмендегі берілген сөйлемдерді ырықсыз етіске айналдырыңыздар.

1) Solar stations will produce cheap electric energy in the near future.

2) Scientist transformed solar energy into electric energy.

3) Controlled nuclear fusions provide a virtually unlimited source of heat energy.

Alternating-current motors

Applying the left – hand rule for induced voltage in the rotor (the thumb points in the direction of motion of the conductor with respect to the field), the direction of induced voltage is back on the left side of the rotor and forward on the right side. The rotor voltage causes a rotor current to flow, which lags the rotor voltage by an Anglo whose tangent is the ratio of rotor reactance to rotor resistance. This is relatively small angle because the slip is small. Applying the left – hand rule for magnetic polarity to the rotor winding, the vertical vector pointing upward represents the direction and magnitude of the rotor winding, the vertical vector pointing upward represents the direction and magnitude of the rotor miff. This direction indicates the tendency to establish an N pole on the upper side of the rotor and an S pole on the lower side, as indicated in the figure. Thus, the rotor and stator muff’s are displaced in space by 90º and in time by an angle that is considerably less than 90º, but sufficient to maintain the magnetic revolving field and the rotor speed.

The motor has the constant - speed variable – torque characteristics of the shunt motor. Many of these motors are designed to operator on either 120 volts or 240 volts. The starting torque is 150 to 200 percent of the full – load torque and the starting current is 6 to 8 times the full – load current. Fractional – horsepower split – phase motors are used in a variety of equipments such as washer’s oil burners, and ventilating fans. The direction of rotation of the split – phase motor can be reversed by interchanging the starting winding leads.

1-жаттығу. Мәтіндегі жаңа сөздермен техникалық терминдердің оқылуына назар аударыңыздар.

induce[ɪn'dju:s], voltage ['vɔltɪʤ], rotor ['rəutə], thumb [θʌm], motion ['məuʃən], forward ['fɔ:wəd], current ['kʌrənt], relativity [ֽrelə'tɪvətɪ], angle ['æŋgl], polarity [pə'lærətɪ], winding ['waɪndɪŋ], vertical ['vɜ:tɪkəl], revolve [rɪ'vɔlv], equal ['i:kwəl], variable-torque ['vɛərɪəbl tɔ:k], fractional-horsepower ['frækʃənəl ['hɔ:sֽpauə], split-phase [splɪt feɪz], reverse [rɪ'vɜ:s], shunt [ʃʌnt], rotation [rə'teɪʃən], tangent ['tænʤənt], ratio ['reɪʃɪəu].

2-жаттығу. Төмендегі берілген сөз тіркестерінің баламасын табыңыздар.

induced voltage, magnetic polarity, rotor winding, the vertical vector, the upper side, considerably less than, revolving field, constant speed, variable torque, split-phase motors, ventilating fans, oil burners.

көрсетілген кернеу, магнитті қарама-қарсылық, жоғарғы жақ, қозғалмалы бөліктің (ротордың) орамы, тік сызықты вектор, мейлінше азырақ, айналмалы өріс, құбылмалы айналмалы кезең, желдеткіш, мұнай пештері, тұрақты жылдамдық, ыдырамалы фазалық электр қозғалтқыш.

3-жаттығу. Мәтіндегі жаңа сөздермен техникалық термин сөздігі.

- constant speed – тұрақты жылдамдық

- voltage - кернеу

- fan - желдеткіш

- the vertical vector - тік сызықты вектор

- relativity – салыстырмалылық

- phase – фаза

- magnetic polarity – магнитті қарама-қарсылық

- oil – мұнай

- speed – жылдамдық

- angle – бұрыш

- magnitude – көлем

- conductor – өткізгіш

4-жаттығу. Кестені толтырыңыздар.

Verb	Noun	Adjective
…	rotation	…
Conduct	…	…
...	…	directive
…	relativity	…
Indicate	…	…
…	…	connective

5-жаттығу. Төменде берілген сөздердің қай сөз табына жататындығын табыңыздар.

variable, direction, voltage, polarity, winding, relatively, establish, torque, load, magnetic, pole, angle, magnitude.

6-жаттығу. Мәтіндегі сөйлемдерден Participle I, Participle II, Gerund қызметін атқарып тұрған сөйлемдерді жазып аударыңыздар.

Conductors and Insulators

The behavior of an object that has been charged is dependent upon whether the object is made of a conductive or a nonconductive material. Conductors are materials that permit electrons to flow freely from atom to atom and molecule to molecule. An object made of a conducting material will permit charge to be transferred across the entire surface of the object. If charge is transferred to the object at a given location, that charge is quickly distributed across the entire surface of the object. The distribution of charge is the result of electron movement. Since conductors allow for electrons to be transported from particle to particle, a charged object will always distribute its charge until the overall repulsive forces between excess electrons is minimized. If a charged conductor is touched to another object, the conductor can even transfer its charge to that object. The transfer of charge between objects occurs more readily if the second object is made of a conducting material. Conductors allow for charge transfer through the free movement of electrons.

In contrast to conductors, insulators are materials that impede the free flow of electrons from atom to atom and molecule to molecule. If charge is transferred to an insulator at a given location, the excess charge will remain at the initial location of charging. The particles of the insulator do not permit the free flow of electrons; subsequently charge is seldom distributed evenly across the surface of an insulator.

While insulators are not useful for transferring charge, they do serve a critical role in electrostatic experiments and demonstrations. Conductive objects are often mounted upon insulating objects. This arrangement of a conductor on top of an insulator prevents charge from being transferred from the conductive object to its surroundings. This arrangement also allows for a student (or teacher) to manipulate a conducting object without touching it. The insulator serves as a handle for moving the conductor around on top of a lab table. If charging experiments are performed with aluminum pop cans, then the cans should be mounted on top of Styrofoam cups. The cups serve as insulators, preventing the pop cans from discharging their charge. The cups also serve as handles when it becomes necessary to move the cans around on the table.

Examples of conductors include metals, aqueous solutions of salts (i.e., ionic compounds dissolved in water), graphite, water and the human body. Examples of insulators include plastics, Styrofoam, paper, rubber, glass and dry air. The division of materials into the categories of conductors and insulators is a somewhat artificial division. It is more appropriate to think of materials as being placed somewhere along a continuum. Those materials that are super conductive (known as superconductors) would be placed at on end and the least conductive materials (best insulators) would be placed at the other end. Metals would be placed near the most conductive end and glass would be placed on the opposite end of the continuum. The conductivity of a metal might be as much as a million trillion times greater than that of glass.

Along the continuum of conductors and insulators, one might find the human body somewhere towards the conducting side of the middle. When the body acquires a static charge it has a tendency to distribute that charge throughout the surface of the body. Given the size of the human body, relative to the size of typical objects used in electrostatic experiments, it would require an abnormally large quantity of excess charge before its affect is noticeable. The affects of excess charge on the body are often demonstrated using a Van de Graaff generator. When a student places their hand upon the static ball, excess charge from the ball is shared with the human body. Being a conductor, the excess charge could flow to the human body and spread throughout the surface of the body, even onto strands of hair. As the individual strands of hair become charged, they begin to repel each other. Looking to distance themselves from their like-charged neighbors, the strands of hair begin to rise upward and outward - a truly hair-raising experience.

Many are familiar with the impact that humidity can have upon static charge buildups. You have likely noticed that bad hair days, doorknob shocks and static clothing are most common during winter months. Winter months tend to be the driest months of the year with humidity levels in the air dropping to lower values. Water, being a conductor, has a tendency to gradually remove excess charge from objects. When the humidity is high, a person acquiring an excess charge will tend to lose that charge to water molecules in the surrounding air. On the other hand, dry air conditions are more conducive to the buildup of static charge and more frequent electric shocks. Since humidity levels tend to vary from day to day and season to season, it is expected that electrical affects (and even the success of electrostatic demonstrations) can vary from day to day.

1-жаттығу. Мәтіндегі жаңа сөздермен техникалық терминдердің оқылуына назар аударыңыздар.

behavior [bɪ'heɪvjər], molecule ['mɔlɪkju:l], entire [ɪn'taɪə], continuum [kən'tɪnjuəm], trillion ['trɪljən], acquire [ə'kwaɪə], require [rɪ'kwaɪə], noticeable ['nəutɪsəbl], throughout [θru'aut], neighbor ['neɪbə], upward ['ʌpwəd], outward ['autwəd], humidity [hju:'mɪdətɪ], buildup ['bɪldʌp], doorknob [dɔ:nɔb], transfer [træns'fɜ:], frequently ['fri:kwəntlɪ], subsequently ['sʌbsɪkwəntlɪ], aluminium [ֽæljə'mɪnɪəm], aqueous ['eɪkwɪəs], graphite ['græfaɪt], appropriate [ə'prəuprɪət], minimize ['mɪnɪmaɪz], impede [ɪm'pi:d].

2-жаттығу. Төменде берілген сөз тіркестерінің баламасын табыңыздар.

nonconductive material, to flow freely, distribution of charge, repulsive forces, electrostatic experiments, insulating objects, aqueous solutions of salts, the conductivity of a metal, static charge, water molecules, surrounding air, electric shock, electrical affects, conducting ability.

өткізгіштік қабілеттілігі, металдың өткізгіштігі, еркін кедергісіз қозғалу, зарядтардың таралуы, ажыратушы денелер, керілу күші, электростатикалық тәжірибелер, ажыратушы материал, электростатикалық заряд, электр тоғымен зақымдану, тұздың сулы ерітіндісі, су молекулалары, қоршаған орта (ауа), электрлік ықпал.

3-жаттығу. Мәтіндегі жаңа сөздермен техникалық термин сөздігі.

- humidity – ылғалдылық

- doorknob – есік ұстағышы

- impede – кедергі жасау

- body – дене

- surface – үстіңгі қабат

- charge – заряд

- distribute – үлестіру

- insulator – айырғыш зат (изолятор)

- conductor – өткізгіш

- repel – итеру

- spread – таралу

- a lab table – тәжірибелік үстел

- Styrofoam – пенопласт

- artificial – жасанды

4-жаттығу. Төмендегі берілген сұрақтарға жауап беріңіздер.

1) What is a conductor?

2) What insulators do you know?

3) What is the difference between conductor and an insulator?

4) Do all substances conduct the electric current?

5) What are the semiconductors?

6) What kind of charges do you know?

5-жаттығу. Төмендегі берілген сөйлемдерді аяқтаңыздар.

1. There is a great difference	a) the current can ….. of the conductor.
2. Insulators play	b) in the conducting ability of various substances.
3. If there is no insulation	c) an important role in electrical engineering.
4. An temperature influences	d) that …… free flow of electrons from atom to atom and……..
5. Insulators are materials	e) the conductance of metals.

6-жаттығу. Төмендегі модальді етістікте тұрған сөйлемдерді аударыңыздар.

1. Many are familiar with the impact that humidity can have upon static charge buildups.

2. If a charged conductor is touched to another object, the conductor can even transfer its charge to that object.

3. The conductivity of a metal might be as much as a million trillion times greater than that of glass.

4. Being a conductor, the excess charge could flow to the human body and spread throughout the surface of the body, even onto strands of hair.

Distribution of Charge via Electron Movement

Predicting the direction that electrons would move within a conducting material is a simple application of the two fundamental rules of charge interaction. Opposites attract and likes repel. Suppose that some method is used to impart a negative charge to an object at a given location. At the location where the charge is imparted, there is an excess of electrons. That is, the multitudes of atoms in that region possess more electrons than protons. Of course, there are a number of electrons that could be thought of as being quite contented since there is an accompanying positively charged proton to satisfy their attraction for an opposite. However, the so-called excess electrons have a repulsive response to each other and would prefer more space. Electrons, like human beings, wish to manipulate their surroundings in an effort to reduce repulsive affects. Since these excess electrons are present in a conductor, there is little hindrance to their ability to migrate to other parts of the object. And that is exactly what they do. In an effort to reduce the overall repulsive affects within the object, there is a mass migration of excess electrons throughout the entire surface of the object. Excess electrons migrate to distance themselves from their repulsive neighbors. In this sense, it is said that excess negative charge distributes itself throughout the surface of the conductor.

But what happens if the conductor acquires an excess of positive charge? What if electrons are removed from a conductor at a given location, giving the object an overall positive charge? If protons cannot move, then how can the excess of positive charge distribute itself across the surface of the material? While the answers to these questions are not as obvious, it still involves a rather simple explanation that once again relies on the two fundamental rules of charge interaction. Opposites attract and likes repel. Suppose that a conducting metal sphere is charged on its left side and imparted an excess of positive charge. (Of course, this requires that electrons be removed from the object at the location of charging.) A multitude of atoms in the region where the charging occurs have lost one or more electrons and have an excess of protons. The imbalance of charge within these atoms creates affects that can be thought of as disturbing the balance of charge within the entire object. The presence of these excess protons in a given location draws electrons from other atoms. Electrons in other parts of the object can be thought of as being quite contented with the balance of charge that they are experiencing. Yet there will always be some electrons that will feel the attraction for the excess protons some distance away. In human terms, we might say these electrons are drawn by curiosity or by the belief that the grass is greener on the other side of the fence. In the language of electrostatics, we simply assert that opposites attract - the excess protons and both the neighboring and distant electrons attract each other. The protons cannot do anything about this attraction since they are bound within the nucleus of their own atoms. Yet, electrons are loosely bound within atoms; and being present in a conductor, they are free to move. These electrons make the move for the excess protons, leaving their own atoms with their own excess of positive charge. This electron migration happens across the entire surface of the object, until the overall sum of repulsive affects between electrons across the whole surface of the object are minimized.

1-жаттығу. Мәтіндегі жаңа сөздермен техникалық терминдердің оқылуына назар аударыңыздар.

distribution [ֽdɪstrɪ'bju:ʃən], predict[prɪ'dɪkt], application [ֽæplɪ'keɪʃən], repel [rɪ'pel], charge [ʧɑ:ʤ], an excess [ænɪk'ses], multitude ['mʌltɪtju:d], possess [pə'zes], attraction [ə'trækʃən], repulsive [rɪ'pʌlsɪv], response [rɪ'spɔns], manipulate [mə'nɪpjəleɪt], hindrance ['hɪndrəns], throughout [θru'aut], entire [ɪn'taɪə], surface ['sɜ:fɪs], neighbour ['neɪbə], acquire [ə'kwaɪə], assert [ə'sɜ:t], disturb [dɪ'stɜ:b], occur [ə'kɜ:], remove [rɪ'mu:v].

2-жаттығу. Төмендегі берілген сөз тіркестерінің баламасын табыңыздар.

electron movement, conducting material, negative charge, excess of electrons, multitude of atoms, repulsive affects, ability to migrate, overall repulsive affects, positive charge, the imbalance of charge, entire object, surface of a material, the presence of protons.

өткізгіш материалдар, электрондар артықшылығы, атомдар саны, кері әсер, қозғалысқа мүмкіншілік, жалпы кері әсер, дененің үстіңгі қабаты, оң заряд, зарядтың болмауы, теріс заряд, протонның құрамында болуы, жалпы дене, электрондар қозғалысы.

3-жаттығу. Төмендегі берілген сөйлемдерге –ful, - ness, -less, -ous, -ant, -ly жалғауларын жалғап әртүрлі сөз таптарына түрлендіріңіздер.

electron, movement, distribute, predict, manipulate, disturb, attract, apply, response, involve, conduct, create, curious, simple, charge, base, require, sense, distant, present.

4-жаттығу. Ырықсыз етісте тұрған сөйлемдерді аударыңыздар.

1) Suppose that a conducting metal sphere is charged on its left side and imparted an excess of positive charge.

2) Suppose that some method is used to impart a negative charge to an object at a given location.

3) At the location where the charge is imparted, there is an excess of electrons.

4) This electron migration happens across the entire surface of the object, until the overall sum of repulsive affects between electrons across the whole surface of the object are minimized.

5-жаттығу. Төмендегі берілген мақалдың мағынасына түсінік жазыңыз.

Grass is greener on the other side of fence.

Conductors, insulators, and semiconductors

Materials are classified as conductors, insulators, or semiconductors according to their electric conductivity. The classifications can be understood in atomic terms. Electrons in an atom can have only certain well-defined energies, and, depending on their energies, the electrons are said to occupy particular energy levels. In a typical atom with many electrons, the lower energy levels are filled, each with the number of electrons allowed by a quantum mechanical rule known as the Pauli Exclusion Principle. Depending on the element, the highest energy level to have electrons may or may not be completely full. If two atoms of some element are brought close enough together so that they interact, the two-atom system has two closely spaced levels for each level of the single atom. If 10 atoms interact, the 10-atom system will have a cluster of 10 levels corresponding to each single level of an individual atom. In a solid, the number of atoms and hence the number of levels is extremely large; most of the higher energy levels overlap in a continuous fashion except for certain energies in which there are no levels at all. Energy regions with levels are called energy bands, and regions that have no levels are referred to as band gaps.

The highest energy band occupied by electrons is the valence band. In a conductor, the valence band is partially filled, and since there are numerous empty levels, the electrons are free to move under the influence of an electric field; thus, in a metal the valence band is also the conduction band. In an insulator, electrons completely fill the valence band; and the gap between it and the next band, which is the conduction band, is large. The electrons cannot move under the influence of an electric field unless they are given enough energy to cross the large energy gap to the conduction band. In a semiconductor, the gap to the conduction band is smaller than in an insulator. At room temperature, the valence band is almost completely filled. A few electrons are missing from the valence band because they have acquired enough thermal energy to cross the band gap to the conduction band; as a result, they can move under the influence of an external electric field. The "holes" left behind in the valence band are mobile charge carriers but behave like positive charge carriers.

For many materials, including metals, resistance to the flow of charge tends to increase with temperature. For example, an increase of 5 C (9 F) increases the resistivity of copper by 2 percent. In contrast, the resistivity of insulators and especially of semiconductors such as silicon and germanium decreases rapidly with temperature; the increased thermal energy causes some of the electrons to populate levels in the conduction band where, influenced by an external electric field, they are free to move. The energy difference between the valence levels and the conduction band has a strong influence on the conductivity of these materials, with a smaller gap resulting in higher conduction at lower temperatures.

1-жаттығу. Мәтіндегі жаңа сөздермен техникалық терминдердің оқылуына назар аударыңыздар.

conductor [kən'dʌktə], insulator ['ɪnsjəleɪtə], conductivity [ֽkɔndʌk'tɪvətɪ], certain ['sɜ:tən], occupy ['ɔkjupaɪ], particular [pə'tɪkjulə], quantum ['kwɔntəm], exclusion [ɪks'klu:ʒən], cluster ['klʌstə], corresponding [ֽkɔrɪ'spɔndɪŋ], valence ['veɪləns], partially ['pɑ:ʃəlɪ], numerous ['nju:mərəs], acquire [ə'kwaɪə], external [ɪk'stɜ:nəl], germanium [ʤɜ:'meɪnɪəm], semiconductor [ֽsemɪkən'dʌktə], thermal ['θɜ:məl], resistivity [ֽri:zɪ'stɪvətɪ].

2-жаттығу. Төменде берілген сөз тіркестерінің баламасын табыңыздар.

well-defined, the two atoms system, energy bands, band gaps, partially filled, thermal energy, an external electric field, free electrons, atomic terms, a quantum mechanical rule, the resistivity of insulators, an electric field, positive charge, valence band.

атомдық терминдер, жылулық қуат, атомның екі жүйесі, тыйым салынған энергетикалық аймақ, жартылай толтырылған, энергетикалық аймақ, ішкі электрлік өріс, ширақ қозғалыс, еркін электрондар, квантты-механикалық ереже.

3-жаттығу. Төмендегі берілген зат есімдерден етістік жасаңыздар.

conductor, insulator, electron, solid, resistance, number, magnet, exclusion, interaction, variation, resistivity.

4-жаттығу. Берілген сөйлемдерді ағылшын тіліне аударыңыздар.

1) Тоғы бар өткізгіштің айналасында магнит өрісі пайда болады.

2) Тұрақты тоқ тек қана тұйықталған тізбекте пайда болады.

3) Зарядталған бөлшек біртекті магнит өрісінде шеңбер бойымен қозғалады.

4) Металдарда еркін заряд тасымалдаушылар – электрондар, ал электролиттерде – иондар болып табылады.

5) Өткізгіш бойымен тоқ өткен кезде жылу бөлініп шығады.

5-жаттығу. Мәтіндегі сөйлемдерден Participle I, Participle II, Gerund қызметін атқарып тұрған сөйлемдерді жазып аударыңыздар.

How voltage, current, and resistance relate

An electric circuit is formed when a conductive path is created to allow free electrons to continuously move. This continuous movement of free electrons through the conductors of a circuit is called a current, and it is often referred to in terms of "flow," just like the flow of a liquid through a hollow pipe.

The force motivating electrons to "flow" in a circuit is called voltage. Voltage is a specific measure of potential energy that is always relative between two points. When we speak of a certain amount of voltage being present in a circuit, we are referring to the measurement of how much potential energy exists to move electrons from one particular point in that circuit to another particular point. Without reference to two particular points, the term "voltage" has no meaning.

Free electrons tend to move through conductors with some degree of friction, or opposition to motion. This opposition to motion is more properly called resistance. The amount of current in a circuit depends on the amount of voltage available to motivate the electrons, and also the amount of resistance in the circuit to oppose electron flow. Just like voltage, resistance is a quantity relative between two points. For this reason, the quantities of voltage and resistance are often stated as being "between" or "across" two points in a circuit.

To be able to make meaningful statements about these quantities in circuits, we need to be able to describe their quantities in the same way that we might quantify mass, temperature, volume, length, or any other kind of physical quantity. For mass we might use the units of "kilogram" or "gram." For temperature we might use degrees Fahrenheit or degrees Celsius. Here are the standard units of measurement for electrical current, voltage, and resistance:

Quantity	Symbol	Unit of Measurement	Unit Abbreviation
Current	1	Ampere (“Amp”)	A
Voltage	E or V	Volt	V
Resistance	R	Ohm	Ω

The "symbol" given for each quantity is the standard alphabetical letter used to represent that quantity in an algebraic equation. Standardized letters like these are common in the disciplines of physics and engineering, and are internationally recognized. The "unit abbreviation" for each quantity represents the alphabetical symbol used as a shorthand notation for its particular unit of measurement. And, yes, that strange-looking "horseshoe" symbol is the capital Greek letter Ω, just a character in a foreign alphabet (apologies to any Greek readers here).

Each unit of measurement is named after a famous experimenter in electricity: The amp after the Frenchman Andre M. Ampere, the volt after the Italian Alessandro Volta, and the ohm after the German Georg Simon Ohm.

The mathematical symbol for each quantity is meaningful as well. The "R" for resistance and the "V" for voltage are both self-explanatory, whereas "I" for current seems a bit weird. The "I" is thought to have been meant to represent "Intensity" (of electron flow), and the other symbol for voltage, "E," stands for "Electromotive force." From what research I've been able to do, there seems to be some dispute over the meaning of "I." The symbols "E" and "V" are interchangeable for the most part, although some texts reserve "E" to represent voltage across a source (such as a battery or generator) and "V" to represent voltage across anything else.

All of these symbols are expressed using capital letters, except in cases where a quantity (especially voltage or current) is described in terms of a brief period of time (called an "instantaneous" value). For example, the voltage of a battery, which is stable over a long period of time, will be symbolized with a capital letter "E," while the voltage peak of a lightning strike at the very instant it hits a power line would most likely be symbolized with a lower-case letter "e" (or lower-case "v") to designate that value as being at a single moment in time. This same lower-case convention holds true for current as well, the lower-case letter "i" representing current at some instant in time. Most direct-current (DC) measurements, however, being stable over time, will be symbolized with capital letters.

One foundational unit of electrical measurement, often taught in the beginnings of electronics courses but used infrequently afterwards, is the unit of the coulomb, which is a measure of electric charge proportional to the number of electrons in an imbalanced state. One coulomb of charge is equal to 6,250,000,000,000,000,000 electrons. The symbol for electric charge quantity is the capital letter "Q," with the unit of coulombs abbreviated by the capital letter "C." It so happens that the unit for electron flow, the amp, is equal to 1 coulomb of electrons passing by a given point in a circuit in 1 second of time. Cast in these terms, current is the rate of electric charge motion through a conductor.

As stated before, voltage is the measure of potential energy per unit charge available to motivate electrons from one point to another. Before we can precisely define what a "volt" is, we must understand how to measure this quantity we call "potential energy." The general metric unit for energy of any kind is the joule, equal to the amount of work performed by a force of 1 newton exerted through a motion of 1 meter (in the same direction). In British units, this is slightly less than 3/4 pound of force exerted over a distance of 1 foot. Put in common terms, it takes about 1 joule of energy to lift a 3/4 pound weight 1 foot off the ground, or to drag something a distance of 1 foot using a parallel pulling force of 3/4 pound. Defined in these scientific terms, 1 volt is equal to 1 joule of electric potential energy per (divided by) 1 coulomb of charge. Thus, a 9 volt battery releases 9 joules of energy for every coulomb of electrons moved through a circuit.

These units and symbols for electrical quantities will become very important to know as we begin to explore the relationships between them in circuits. The first, and perhaps most important, relationship between current, voltage, and resistance is called Ohm's Law, discovered by Georg Simon Ohm and published in his 1827 paper, The Galvanic Circuit Investigated Mathematically. Ohm's principal discovery was that the amount of electric current through a metal conductor in a circuit is directly proportional to the voltage impressed across it, for any given temperature. Ohm expressed his discovery in the form of a simple equation, describing how voltage, current, and resistance interrelate:

In this algebraic expression, voltage (E) is equal to current (I) multiplied by resistance (R). Using algebra techniques, we can manipulate this equation into two variations, solving for I and for R, respectively:

Let's see how these equations might work to help us analyze simple circuits:

1-жаттығу. Мәтіндегі жаңа сөздермен техникалық терминдердің оқылуына назар аударыңыздар.

conductive [kən'dʌktɪv] , path [pɑ:θ] , current ['kʌrənt], hollow ['hɔləu], measure ['meʒə], potential [pə'tenʃəl], friction ['frɪkʃən], opposition [ֽɔpə'zɪʃən], motion ['məuʃən], resistance [rɪ'zɪstəns], available [ə'veɪləbl], meaningful ['mi:nɪŋfəl], length [leŋθ], notation [nəu'teɪʃən], abbreviation [əֽbrìvɪ'eɪʃən], symbolize ['sɪmbəlaɪz], coulomb ['ku:lɔm], joule [ʤu:l], equation [ɪ'kweɪʒən], Fahrenheit ['færənhaɪt].

2-жаттығу. Төменде берілген сөз тіркестерінің баламасын табыңыздар.

conductive path, potential energy, meaningful statements, physical quantity, algebraic equation, unit abbreviation, unit of measurement, capital letters, direct current, rate of electric charge motion, electromotive force.

ток өткізгіш, аралық қосылу, потенциалдық қуат, маңызды пікір, физикалық көлем, алгебралық теңдеу, ықшамдау бірлігі, өлшем бірлік, бас әріптер, тұрақты ток, электр механизмінің жылдамдығы, электр қозғаушы күш.

3-жаттығу. Төмендегі берілген сұрақтарға жауап беріңіздер.

1) What is an electric circuit?

2) What is the unit of mass?

3) What is the unit of current?

4) What is the unit of resistance?

5) What is the unit of voltage?

4-жаттығу. Төмендегі берілген сөздерден туынды сөздер жасаңыздар.

move-

relate-

resist-

motivate-

define-

measure-

express-

reserve-

mean-

quantify-

5-жаттығу. Төменде берілген сөздердің қай сөз табына жататындығын табыңыздар.

explore, scientific, motion, joule, conductive, negative, resistance, circuit, except, available, flow, potential, quantity, friction, experimenter, symbolize, directly, metric, particular, voltage, foundational.

Direct-current generators

Generators can be designed to supply small amounts of power or they can be designed to supply many thousands of kilowatts of power. Also, generators may be designed to supply either direct current or alternating current. Direct-current generators are described in this chapter. Alternating-current generators were described in chapter 16.

A d-c generator is a rotating machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. This conversation is accomplished by rotating an armature, which carries conductors, in a magnetic field, thus including an emf in the conductors. As stated before, in order for an emf to be induced in the conductors, a relative motion must always exist between the conductors and the magnetic field in such a manner that the conductors cut through the field. In most d-c generators the armature is the rotating member and the field is the stationary member. A mechanical force is applied to the shaft of the rotating member to cause the relative motion. Thus, when mechanical energy is put into the machine in the form of a mechanical force or twist on the shaft, causing the shaft to turn at a certain speed, electrical energy in the form of voltage and current is delivered to the external load circuit. It should be understood that mechanical power must be applied to the shaft constantly so long as the generator is supplying electrical energy to the external load circuit.

The power source used to turn the armature is commonly called a PRIME MOVER. Many forms of prime movers are in use, such as steam turbines, diesel engines, gasoline engines, and steam engines.

A d-c generator consists essentially of the flowing components:

1) A steel frame or yoke containing the pole pieces and field windings.

2) An armature consisting of a group of copper conductors mounted in a slotted cylindrical core, made up of thin steel disks called laminations.

3) A commutator for maintaining the current in one direction through the external circuit.

4) Brushes with brush holders to carry the current from the commutator to the external load circuit.

D-c generators come in various sizes and appearances. A typical large generator as depicted in figure 18-1 (A) may weigh hundreds of pounds, while a smaller aircraft generator as depicted in (B) of figure 18-1 rarely exceeds 100 pounds.

1-жаттығу. Мәтіндегі жаңа сөздермен техникалық терминдердің оқылуына назар аударыңыздар.

generator ['ʤenəreɪtə], supply [sə'plaɪ], design [dɪ'zaɪn], kilowatt ['kɪləwɔt], rotate [rəu'teɪt], armature ['ɑ:məʧə], state [steɪt], induce [ɪn'dju:s], relative ['relətɪv], motion ['məuʃən], exist [ɪg'zɪst], stationary ['steɪʃənərɪ], mechanical [mɪ'kænɪkəl], twist [twɪst], shaft [ʃɑ:ft], cause [kɔ:z], certain ['sɜ:tən], deliver [dɪ'lɪvə], circuit ['sɜ:kɪt], constantly ['kɔnstəntlɪ], turbine ['tɜ:baɪn], diesel ['di:zəl], engine ['enʤɪn], gasoline ['gæsəli:n], essentially [ɪ'senʃəlɪ], winding ['waɪndɪŋ], mount [maunt], cylindrical [sə'lɪndrɪkəl], core [kɔ:], lamination læmɪ'neɪʃən], maintain [meɪn'teɪn], appearance [ə'pɪərəns], exceed [ɪk'si:d].

2-жаттығу. Төменде берілген сөз тіркестерінің баламасын табыңыздар.

amounts of power, to supply direct current, to rotate an armature, magnetic field, relative motion, direct current generators, mechanical energy, certain speed, external load circuit, prime mover, steam turbines, gasoline-engines, copper conductors, various sizes.

күш мөлшері, тұрақты тоқпен қамтамасыздандыру, арматураны айналдыру, магнитті өріс, салыстырмалық қозғалыс, тұрақты тоқ генераторлары, жүктеменің сыртқы өрісі, нақты жылдамдық, алғашқы қозғалтқыш, бу құбырлары, жанармайлы қозғалтқыш, мыс өткізгіштіктері, әртүрлі өлшемде, механикалық энергия.

3-жаттығу. Төмендегі берілген сұрақтарға жауап беріңіздер.

1) What is direct current generator?

2) What are the principle parts direct current generators?

3) Does direct current generator connect electrical energy into mechanical?

4) What are the forms of prime mover?

5) What do you know about the functions of an armature commutator and brush holders?

4-жаттығу. Мәтіндегі сөз тіркестерін салыстырыңыздар.

1) direct current and alternating current

2) diesel engines, gasoline engines and steam engines

3) electromotive force and external circuit

5-жаттығу. Мәтіндегі Modal етістігі бар сөйлемдерді теріп жазып оның шақтары мен қызметін анықтаңыздар.

Electric Charge

The unit of electric charge is the Coulomb (abbreviated C). Ordinary matter is made up of atoms which have positively charged nuclei and negatively charged electrons surrounding them. Charge is quantized as a multiple of the electron or proton charge:

The influence of charges is characterized in terms of the forces between them (Coulomb's law) and the electric field and voltage produced by them. One Coulomb of charge is the charge which would flow through a 120 watt light bulb (120 volts AC) in one second. Two charges of one Coulomb each separated by a meter would repel each other with a force of about a million tons!

The rate of flow of electric charge is called electric current and is measured in Amperes.

In introducing one of the fundamental properties of matter, it is perhaps appropriate to point out that we use simplified sketches and constructs to introduce concepts, and there is inevitably much more to the story. No significance should be attached to the circles representing the proton and electron, in the sense of implying a relative size, or even that they are hard sphere objects, although that's a useful first construct. The most important opening idea, electrically, is that they have a property called "charge" which is the same size, but opposite in polarity for the proton and electron. The proton has 1836 times the mass of the electron, but exactly the same size charge, only positive rather than negative. Even the terms "positive" and "negative" are arbitrary, but well-entrenched historical labels. The essential implication of that is that the proton and electron will strongly attract each other, the historical archetype of the cliché "opposites attract". Two protons or two electrons would strongly repel each other. Once you have established those basic ideas about electricity, "like charges repel and unlike charges attract", then you have the foundation for electricity and can build from there. From the precise electrical neutrality of bulk matter as well as from detailed microscopic experiments, we know that the proton and electron have the same magnitude of charge. All charges observed in nature are multiples of these fundamental charges. Although the standard model of the proton depicts it as being made up of fractionally charged particles called quarks, those fractional charges are not observed in isolation -- always in combinations which produce +/- the electron charge.

An isolated single charge can be called an "electric monopole". Equal positive and negative charges placed close to each other constitute an electric dipole. Two oppositely directed dipoles close to each other are called an electric quadruple. You can continue this process to any number of poles, but dipoles and quadruples are mentioned here because they find significant application in physical phenomena. One of the fundamental symmetries of nature is the conservation of electric charge. No known physical process produces a net change in electric charge.

1-жаттығу. Мәтіндегі жаңа сөздермен техникалық терминдердің оқылуына назар аударыңыздар.

coulomb ['ku:lɔm], nuclei ['nju:klɪaɪ], quantize ['kwɔntaɪz], multiple ['mʌltɪpl], electron [ɪ'lektrɔn], proton ['prəutɔn], bulb [bʌlb], inevitably [ɪ'nevɪtəblɪ], sphere [sfɪə], archetype ['ɑ:kɪtaɪp], cliché ['kli:ʃeɪ], repel [rɪ'pel], microscopic [ֽmaɪkrə'skɔpɪk], quark[kwɑ:k], isolation [ֽaɪsə'leɪʃən], symmetrize ['sɪmətraɪz], positive ['pɔzətɪv], negative ['negətɪv], bulk [bʌlk], neutrality [nju:'trælətɪ], depict [dɪ'pɪkt], phenomena [fɪ'nɔmɪnə].

2-жаттығу. Төменде берілген сөз тіркестерінің баламасын табыңыздар.

the unit of electric charge, ordinary matter, the rate flow of electric charge, the essential implication, opposites attract, fractional charges, charges placed close to each other, significant application in physical phenomena.

электр зарядының өлшем бірлігі, қалыпты материя, электр заряды жылдамдығының ағыны, маңызды салдар, қарама-қарсы тартылыс, бөлшек сандар заряды, бір-біріне жақын орналасқан зарядтар, физикалық құбылыстағы маңызды қолдану.

3-жаттығу. Мәтіндегі жаңа сөздермен техникалық термин сөздігі.

- archetype – түпнұсқа

- сoulomb – кулон (электр зарядының өлшем бірлігі)

- isolation – изолятор

- negative – теріс

- positive – оң

- electron – электрон

- nuclei – ядро

- ordinary matter – қалыпты материя

- electric charge – электр заряды

- poles – полюс

- properties of matter – материяның қасиеті

- physical process – физикалық үдеріс

4-жаттығу. Төмендегі берілген сөйлемдерді аяқтаңыздар.

1. The unit of electric charge is	a) electric current and is measured in Amperes.
2. Two charges of one Coulomb each separated by	b) the conservation of electric charge.
3. The rate of flow of electric charge is called	c) the Coulomb.
4. One of the fundamental symmetries of nature is	d) are multiples of these fundamental charges.
5. All charges observed in nature	e) a meter would repel each other with a force of about a million tons.

Әдебиеттер тізімі

1. Куклина И.Пособие для средних специальных технических учебных заведений. – Изд-во каро, 2000.

2. Keith Boeckner. P. Charles Brown. Computong, 2003.

3. Dinos demetriades. Information Technology. OxfordUniversity Press, 2003.

Мазмұны

The Sun is the energy source!	3
What is electrical energy?	6
Alternative Energy Sources	8
Alternating-current motors	10
Conductors and Insulators	12
Distribution of Charge via Electron Movement	16
Conductors, insulators, and semiconductors	18
How voltage, current, and resistance relate	20
Direct-current generators	24
Electric Charge	26