Некоммерческое акционерное общество
АЛМАТИНСКИЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ ЭНЕРГЕТИКИ И СВЯЗИ
Кафедра иностранных языков
АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК
Методические указания для развития навыков чтения и перевода текстов (для студентов специальностей 5В050600 – Экономика и 5В050700 - Менеджмент)
Алматы 2011
СОСТАВИТЕЛИ: Нурходжаева Х.А. и Серикбаева У.Б. Английский язык. Методические указания для развития навыков чтения и перевода (для студентов специальностей 5В050600- Экономика и 5В050700 - Менеджмент)– Алматы. АУЭС, 2011. – 29 с.
Методические указания для развития навыков чтения и перевода составлены для студентов экономических специальностей.
Цель методического указания – сформировать у студентов умение читать и переводить оригинальную литературу по специальности и развить у них навыки устной речи в пределах пройденной тематики. Все тексты и упражнения составлены на основе оригинальной лексики, употребляемой современными носителями языка.
Методические указания по чтению и переводу экономической литературы рекомендуется к печати.
Рецензент: ст. преподаватель Г. Ахетова
Печатается по плану издания некоммерческого акционерного общества «Алматинский университет энергетики и связи» на 2011 г.
© НАО «Алматинский университет энергетики и связи», 2011 г.
Сводный план 2011г., поз. 295
Unit 1. Measuring economic activity
There are a large number of statistics produced regularly on the operation of the world’s major economies. The UK’s economy is no exception in this respect. You will probably have noticed that often the headlines in newspapers or important items on television news programmers relate to economic data and implications for individuals and businesses. A prime example of this occurs when interest rates are increased, the media responds by highlighting the adverse effects on businesses with debts and householders with mortgages.
Data is provided on a wide range of aspects of the economy’s operation. Statistics are available to show:
- the level of unemployment;
- the level of inflation;
- a country’s trade balance with the rest of the world.
Production volumes in key industries and the economy as a whole.
The level of wages.
Raw material prices, and so on.
The main statistics illustrating the economy’s behaviors relate to the level of activity in the economy. That is they tell us whether the economy is working at full capacity using all or nearly all, available resources of lab our, machinery and other factors of production or whether these resources are being under-utilized.
The unemployment figures for the economy give an indicator of the level of activity. As the economy moves towards a recession and a lower level of prosperity it is likely that unemployment figures will rise. An alternative measure of the level of activity is national income statistics, which show the value of a nation’s output during a year. Economists use the term Gross National Product to describe this data. Changes in the level or trends of such key data have great significance for businesses, as we shall see later.
There are numerous sources of data on the economy of which we can make use. The government publishes much through the Treasury, Departments of Trade and Industry, the Bank of England and the Department of Employment. The Central Statistical Office, which was established during the Second World War, publishes about half of the government’s economic data.
Much of this is contained in its annual publication,” The annual abstract of statistics”. It also publishes the equally valuable “Social Trends” annually. Additionally, private organizations, such as the banks, building societies and universities, publish figures on various aspects of the economy’s performance.
Economic statistics are presented in many forms, the most common being graphs and tables. Although these statistics can be valuable in assisting managers, they should be treated with some caution when predicting the future trend of the economy and thus helping the business to take effective decisions.
Vocabulary notes
To measure – измерять, рассчитывать, оценивать
Economic activity- экономическая деятельность
Is no exception in this respect- в этом отношении не является исключением?
Important items –важные вопросы, проблемы
To relate to – относиться к чему-либо, иметь отношение
By highlighting the adverse effects on – а первую очередь освещая неблагоприятное влияние на …
Householder- домовладелец, домохозяин
Household-домашнее хозяйство
Mortgage -закладная
Data -данные
On a wide range of aspects –по самым разнообразным аспектам
Statistics are available to show- статистика показывает
Trade balance –торговый баланс
Key industries- основные отрасли промышленности
Wages- заработная плата (рабочих)
Salary-заработная плата (служащих)
Raw material prices –цены на сырье
At full capacity-на полную мощность
Available resources –доступные, имеющиеся в наличии ресурсы
Labour - труд
Machinery -оборудование
Factors of production – производственные факторы, факторы производства (труд, земля, природные ресурсы, капитал)
To be under-utilized – не использоваться полностью
Unemployment figures –количество безработных
Indicator -показатель
National income –национальный доход
The value of a nation’s output- оценка объема производства
Gross National Product (GNP) –валовой национальный доход (ВНП)
Trend –направление, тенденция
The Treasury –государственное казначейство, министерство финансов (в Великобритании)
The Department of Employment- министерство по вопросам занятости (в Великобритании)
The Central Statistical Office –центральное статистическое управление
To contain -содержать
Equally valuable –такой же важный
Building societies –строительное общество
Graphs and tables – графики и таблицы
To assist –помогать, оказывать помощь
They should be treated with some caution- к этим данным следует относиться с некоторой осторожностью
Assignments
Exercise 1. Read and translate these word combinations
A vast subject, precise definitions, the basic questions, the material aspects, an underlying problem, advanced countries, struggle for existence, standard of living, a large percentage, self-sufficient communities, economic independence,
Exercise 2. Suggest the Russian equivalents
Important items on TV programmers relate to economic data and the implications for individuals and businesses, a prime example, the adverse effects, householders, statistics are available to show, available resources of labour, at full capacity, key industries, key data, the value of nation’s output, the treasury, building societies, they should be treated with some caution, trend
Exercise 3. Fill in the gaps with the words and expressions from the text
1. The headlines in newspaper often --- economic data and --- for individuals and businesses.
2. The statistics tell us whether the economy is working --- using all or nearly all --- resources of lab our, machinery and other factors of production or whether these resources are being ---.
3. Economists use the term --- to describe the value of a nation’s output during a year.
4. Although these statistics can be --- in assisting managers, they should --- with – when – the future trend of the economy.
Exercise 4. Find in the text English equivalents for the following
Много (многочисленные), в этом отношении, средства массовой информации, подчеркивать, выделять, закладные, объем производства, сырье, не полностью используется, уровень занятости, валовой национальный продукт, опубликовать в каких –либо источниках.
Exercise 5. Increase your vocabulary
It is likely (unlikely) that ---
Smb is likely (unlikely) to be (to do smith)
1. Эта статистика, возможно, будет опубликована в ежегоднике центрального статистического бюро.
2. Вряд ли эти цифры говорят о низком уровне занятости.
3. Похоже, что эти производственные мощности используются не полностью.
4. Может быть, экономика будет работать на полную мощность, если будут использованы все факторы производства.
Exercise 6. Paraphrase these sentences into Past and Future Tenses
1. It is not a difficult matter to give a simple answer to the basic question.
2. People apply their knowledge and efforts to the gifts of nature in order to satisfy their material wants.
3. Even in the prosperous countries there is an aspect of survival.
4. This problem attracts little attention.
5. Such people have the abilities to sustain life without outside assistance.
6. They experience great poverty.
7. They depend on the efforts and cooperation of many thousands of specialist workers.
Exercise 7. Find synonyms
Study, precise, complex, subject, essentially, use, exact, matter, basically, mainly, apply, developed, examine, advanced, completely, help, community, totally, assistance, society, build, gift, construct, present, receive, fixed, different, broad, common, fairly, selection, error, choice, constant, mistake, rather, basic, produce, wide, get, general, make, various.
Exercise 8. Find antonyms
Begin, difficult, high, poor, inside, wealth, finish, easy, low, prosperous, outside, poverty, capable, dependence, incapable, directly, large, independence, indirectly, small, different, rigidity, broad, old, distant, long, receive, advanced, true, ancient, narrow, same, near, backward, false, lose, modern, young, short, flexibility.
Exercise 9. Fill in the gaps with verbs
1. Although Economics ---- a vast subject and precise definitions … usually very complex, it …. not a difficult matter to give a simple answer to the basic question (be).
2. Economics --- itself to the study of the material aspects of life (to limit).
3. We must examine how people have solved or … to solve this problem (to try).
4. It …. little attention from those of us fortunate enough to live in these areas (to attract).
5. A large percentage of human race still … in small self-sufficient communities (to live).
6. Economic society …itself as a means whereby people are able to carry out the tasks of production and distribution (to present).
7. These basic types of economic organization … (to describe) as Traditional economies, Market economies, Command economies and Mixed economies.
8. In traditional societies, people … (to use) methods of production and distribution that …. (to devise) in the distant past and which …(to become) the accepted ways of doing things by a long process of trial and error.
9. The basic economic problems do not … (to arise) as problems … (to discuss) and … (to argue) about.
Exercise 10. Answer the questions
1. Why does the media relate to economic data and the implications for individual
and businesses?
2. What aspects of the economy’s operation are statistics available to show?
3. What do statistics show?
4. What are the sources if data on the economy in the UK?
5. What is the GNP?
6. Why should statistics be treated with some caution?
Exercise 11. Translate using all active possible
1. К официальным статистическим данным по уровню инфляции в стране следует относиться с осторожностью.
2. Валовой национальный продукт – это совокупность товаров и услуг, произведенных национальной экономикой за год.
3. Объем производства продукции в ключевых отраслях промышленности в значительной степени показывает уровень активности населения.
4. Если в экономике отмечается падение производства, то следствием этого становится рост безработицы и понижение уровня зарплаты.
5. Средства массовой информации сообщили об отрицательном влиянии на производство увеличившейся процентной ставки.
Exercise 12. Put questions in italics
1. In traditional societies, people use methods of production that were devised in the distant past.
2. They have all been decided long ago.
3. A son follows in the footsteps of his father.
4. He uses the same skills and tools.
5. The distribution problem is solved in a similar manner.
6. In Britain equal pay for women did not obtain legal sanction until the 1970s.
Unit 2. Economic system
An economic system is quite simply the way in which a country uses its available resources (land, workers, natural resources, machinery) etc. to satisfy the demands of its inhabitants for goods and services. The more goods and services that can be produced from these limited resources, the higher the standard of living enjoyed by the country’s citizens.
There are three main economic systems.
Planned economics
Planned economies are sometimes called ‘command economies’ because the state commands the use of resources (such as lab our and factories) that are used to produce goods and services as it owns factories, land and natural resources. Planned economies are economies with a large amount of central planning and direction, when the government takes all the decisions, the government decides production and consumption. Planning of this kind is obviously very difficult, very complicated to do, and the result is that there is no society, which is completely a command economy. The actual system employed varies from state to state, but command or planned economies have a number of common features.
Firstly, the state decides precisely what the nation is to produce. It usually plans five years ahead. It is the intention of the planners that there should be enough goods and services for all.
Secondly, industries are asked to comply with these plans and each industry and factory is set a production target to meet. If each factory and farm meets its target, then the state will meet its targets as set out in the five-year plans. You could think of the factory and farm targets to be objectives which, if met, allow the nation’s overall aim to be reached.
A planned economy is simple to understand but not simple to operate. It does, however, have a number of advantages:
- everyone in society receives enough goods and services to enjoy a basic standard of living;
- Nations do not waste resources duplicating production.
The sate can use its control of the economy to divert resources to wherever it wants. As a result, it can ensure that everyone receives a good education, proper health care or that transport is available.
Several disadvantages also exist. It is these disadvantages that have led to many nations abandoning planned economies over recent years:
- there is no incentive for individuals to work hard in planned economies;
- any profits that are made are paid to the government;
- citizens cannot star their own businesses and so new ideas rarely come forward;
- as a result, industries in planned economies can be very inefficient.
A major problem faced by command or planned economies is that of deciding what to produce. Command economies tend to be slow when responding to changes in people’s tastes and fashions. Planners are likely to under produce some items as they cannot predict changes in demand. Equally, some products, which consumers regard as obsolete and unattractive, may be overproduced. Planners are afraid to produce goods and services unless they are sure substantial amounts will be purchased. This leads to delays and queues for some products.
Vocabulary notes
Inhabitants-жители, население
To own -владеть
Natural resources - природные ресурсы
A large amount –большой объем
Central planning and direction –центральное планирование и руководство
Consumption -потребление
Obviously -очевидно
Complicated -сложный
To have a number of common features –иметь ряд общих черт
Intention - намерение
To comply with -подчиняться
A production target to meet –производственная задача, которую надо выполнять
An objective –цель, задача
An overall aim –общая цель
To enjoy a basic standard of living –иметь основной уровень жизни
To duplicate production –дублировать производство
To divert- отвлекать
To abandon –отказываться от чего-либо
A major problem faced by command or planned economies- основная проблема, стоящая перед командной или плановой экономикой
Changes in tastes and fashions – изменения вкусов и моды
To under produce -недопроизводить
To regard smith as –воспринимать что-либо, относиться к чему-либо как …
Obsolete (out of date) - перепроизводить
Delays and queues – перебои с товарами и очереди
Assignments
Exercise 1. Read and translate these word combinations
Economic society, a mechanism of survival, the tasks of production and distribution, fairly recent times, in the distant past, the accepted ways, along process of trial and error, working procedures, the same skills and tools, in a similar manner, equal pay, legal sanction.
Exercise 2. Suggest the Russian equivalents
each factory is set a production target to meet, to divert resources to wherever it wants, new ideas rarely come forward, tend to be slow when responding to changes.
Exercise 3. Fill in the gaps with the words and expressions from the text
1. The type of system chosen is … in…, in which businesses operate.
2. An economic system is the way in which a country uses its --- to satisfy the demands of --- for goods and services.
3. The more goods and services that can be produced, the higher the standard of living … by the country’s citizens.
4. The state --- factories, land and ….
5. Planned economies are economies with --- of ---, when the government --- all --, decides --- and ---.
6. The actual system employed --- from state to state, but command or planned economies have---.
7. It is --- that there should be enough goods and services for all.
8. Industries are asked --- these plans and each industry and factory is set ---.
9. The factory and farm targets are --- which, if met, allow the nation’s --- to be reached.
10. Nations do not waste resources ---.
11. The state can use its control of the economy --- to wherever it wants.
12. It is – that have led to many nation’s – planned economies over recent years.
13. There is no --- for individuals to work hard in planned economies.
14. Industries in planned economies can be very ---.
15. Command economies tend to ---- when --- to changes in people’s tastes and fashions.
16. Planners are likely --- some items as they cannot --- changes in demand.
17. Some --- and unattractive products may be ---.
18. This leads to --- for some products.
Exercise 4. Find in the text English equivalents for the following
имеющиеся в распоряжении ресурсы, управлять использованием ресурсов, управление экономикой, отказываться от плановой экономики, иметь высокий жизненный уровень, иметь общие черты, подчиняться 5-летнему плану, значительное количество, ставить производственные задачи, полученная прибыль, стимула к эффективной работе, перебои и очереди, реагировать на изменения спроса, предсказывать изменения спроса, основная проблема, стоящая перед ….
Exercise 5. Answer the questions
1. What is an economic system?
2. What does a standard of living depend on?
3. What is a planned economy? What are its main features?
4. Give the advantages of a planned economy?
5. Give the disadvantages of a planned economy?
6. What causes delays and queues for some products?
7. What can you add to the list of advantages and disadvantages of a planned economy?
Exercise 6. Translate using the active possible
1. Если хозяйство плановое, то работа промышленности подчиняется плану, в котором государство определяет производственные задачи и планирует развитие на 5 лет вперед.
2. В плановой экономике покупатели лишены возможности влиять на производство товаров.
3. Поскольку значительная доля полученной прибыли должна быть выплачена государству, то в условиях плановой экономики стимулы работать эффективно невелики.
4. Промышленность часто выпускает непривлекательные и старомодные товары, поскольку невозможно предсказать изменения моды на 5 лет вперед.
5. Государство в условиях плановой экономики может гарантировать своим гражданам образование и медицинское обслуживание.
6. Все крупные решения, касающихся объема используемых ресурсов, структуры и распределения продукции, производства и потребления, принимаются центральным плановым органом.
Exercise 7. Give synonyms
Lab our, apparent, factor, obvious, work, to consider, supplementary, cost, freedom, amount, to offer, quantity, to change, different, determinant, price, additional, to take into account, liberty, to transform, various, to suggest.
Exercise 8. Give antonyms
Employment, fall, leisure, late, same, low, short, high, different, work, small, early, large, unemployment, rise, long.
Exercise 9. fill in the gaps words in correct form
1. lab our ---- to the production of goods and services ( to direct).
2. It is also the reason why economic activity –--- (to take place).
3. The people who --- in production are also consumers (to take part).
4. The sum of those individual demands --- the business person to undertake production (to provide).
5. It is necessary -- - lab our somewhat differently from the other factors (to treat).
6. There are social and political problems which have ---into account (take).
7. Both of these factors are subject --- (to change).
8. Two countries might ---- the same total population (to have).
Exercise 10. Paraphrase these sentences into Past and Future Simple
1. It presents the mechanism for survival.
2. They are able to carry out the task of production.
3. It is possible to group these structures into four broad categories.
4. These methods are based on tradition.
5. The distribution problem is solved in a similar manner.
6. They receive shares according to an ancient custom.
7. Tradition plays some part in economical processes.
Exercise 11. Fill in the gaps, using the following words
Land, long, path, presents, arise solved, share, similar, custom, distribution, tasks, used, as.
1. Economic society --- itself a means whereby people are able to carry out the --- of production and …
2. The basic economic problems do not --- as problems to be discussed and argued about.
3. They have all been decided --- ago.
4. One follows the ---- that one was born to follow.
5. The production system problems are --- by using --- as it has always been ---.
6. The distribution problem is – in a --- manner.
7. The elders will receive --- according to ancient ---.
Unit 3. Market economics
Vocabulary notes
To own and run business - владеть и управлять бизнесом
To intervene -вмешиваться
Private enterprise – частное предпринимательство
Private ownership of the means of production – частная собственность на средства производства
Public property, common ownership –общественная собственность
Personal property –личная собственность
State- owned property, state ownership –государственная собственность
Private supplies of capital –частный капитал
Surplus income available for investment in new business activities – дополнительный доход, который можно вложить в новое дело
To employ –использовать, предоставлять работу, нанимать
Employer - работодатель
Employee -служащий
Employment - занятость
Unemployment -безработица
To persuade -убеждать
At first view –на первый взгляд
To adjust automatically – автоматически приспосабливаться, приводиться в соответствие
Competitive -конкурентоспособный
To make the largest profits possible – получить наибольшую возможную прибыль
To pursue one’s own interests- преследовать свои интересы
To make money out of it – заработать деньги на этом
To move the production possibility frontier outwards – продвинуть вперед предел производственных возможностей
To make the society better-off –сделать общество более состоятельным
To create new job and opportunities – создать новые рабочие места, новые возможности
To under purchase – недостаточно раскупать
To provide free or subsidized supplies- обеспечить бесплатное или субсидированное предоставление (товаров и услуг)
In response to –в ответ на
A cornerstone – краеугольный камень
To alter swiftly – быстро меняться
Consequence - последствия
Lab our- intensive production –трудоемкое производство
Safety standards –нормы техники безопасности
Working conditions –условия работы
Large – scale intervention – широкомасштабное вмешательство
To pass laws –принимать законы
To gain sufficient sales – добиться достаточного объема продаж
Rival firms –фирмы конкуренты, соперники
To have confidence –иметь уверенность
To lack confidence –не хватать уверенности
Exercise 1. Read and translate the text
In a true market economy the government plays no role in the management of the economy, the government does not intervene in it.
The system is based on private enterprise with private ownership of the means of production and private supplies of capital, which can be defined as surplus income available for investment in new business activities. Workers are paid wages by employers according to how skilled they are and how many firms wish to employ them. They spend their wages on the products and services they need. Consumers are willing to spend more on products and services, which are favored. Firms producing these goods will make more profits and this will persuade more firms to produce these particular goods rather than less favored ones.
Thus, we can see that in a market economy it is consumers who decide what is to be produced. Consumers will be willing to pay high prices for products they particularly desire. Firms, which are privately owned, see the opportunity of increased profits and produce the new fashionable and favored products.
Such a system is, at first view, very attractive. The economy adjusts automatically to meet changing demands. No planners have to be employed, which allows more resources to be available for production. Firms tend to be highly competitive in such an environment. New advanced products and low prices are good ways to increase sales and profits, since all firms are privately owned they try to make the largest profits possible. In a free market individual people are free to pursue their own interest. They can become millionaires, for example. Suppose you invent a new kind of car. You want to make money out of it in your own interests. But when you have that car produced, you are in fact moving the production possibility frontier outwards. You actually make the society better-off by creating new jobs and opportunities, even though you become a millionaire in the process and you do it without any government help or intervention.
Not surprisingly there are also problems. Some goods would be under purchased if the government did not provide free or subsidizes supplies. Examples of this type of goods and services are health and education. There are other goods and services, such as defiance and policing that are impossible to supply individually in response to consumer spending. Once defiance or a police force is supplied to a country then everyone in this country benefits.
A cornerstone of the market system is that production alters swiftly to meet changing demands. These swift changes can however, have serious consequences. Imagine a firm, which switches from lab our- intensive production to one where new technology is employed in the factory. The resulting unemployment could lead to social as well as economic problems.
In market economy there might be minimal control on working conditions and safety standards concerning products and services. It is necessary to have large- scale government intervention to pass laws to protect consumers and workers.
Some firms produce goods and then advertise heavily to gain sufficient sales. Besides wasting resources on advertising, firms may also duplicate one another’s services. Rival firms, providing rail services, for example, could mean that two or more systems of rail are laid.
Finally, firms have to have confidence in future sales if they are to produce new goods and services. At certain times they tend to lack confidence and cut back on production and the development of new ideas. The decision, when taken by many firms, can lead to a recession. A recession means less spending, fewer jobs and decline in the prosperity of the nation.
Assignment
Exercise 1. Suggest the Russian equivalents
New advanced products, products which are favored, they try to make the largest profits possible, provide free or subsidized supplies, produce goods and the advertise heavily, a firm, which switches from lab our-intensive production to a new one, a decline in the prosperity of the nation.
Exercise 2. Fill in the gaps with the words and expressions from the text
1. Small South-East Asian like Hong Kong and Singapore contain some businesses --- by the state.
2. The system is based on --- with --- of ---.
3. Private supplies of capital can be defined as --- available for --- in ---.
4. Consumers are willing to spend more on products and services, which ---.
5. More profits will=== more firms to produce these particular goods that are favored.
6. In a market economy it is – who decide what is to be produced.
7. ----firms see the opportunity of --- and produce the new fashionable and favored products.
8. The economy --- automatically to meet changing demands.
9. Firms tend to be highly ---- in such an environment.
10. In a free market individual people are free ---.
11. But when you have that car produced, you are moving ----.
12. You actually make --- by--, even though you become a millionaire in the process, and you do it without --- or ---.
13. Some goods would be – if the government did not provide --- supplies.
14. Some other goods and services, such as defence and policing, are impossible to --- in response to consumer spending.
15. ---- of the market system is that production --- to meet changing demands.
16. If a firm switches from --- to one where new technology --- in the factory, it can lead to --- and --- problems.
17. It is necessary to have --- to pass laws --- consumers and workers.
18. Firms have – in future sales if they are to produce new goods and services.
19. A recession means --- spending--- jobs and --- of the nation.
Exercise 3. Find in the text English equivalents for the following
Управление экономикой, процветание нации, широкомасштабное вмешательство правительства, принимать законы, быстро меняться, конкурирующие фирмы, автоматически изменяться, быть конкурентоспособным, частные фирмы, фирмы принадлежащие государству и управляемые им, краеугольный камень, иметь серьезные последствия для …, трудоемкое производство, сокращать производство, быть уверенным в …, не хватает уверенности в …, дорого платить за что – либо.
Exercise 4. Answer the questions
1. What is a market economy?
2. What is the main difference between a market economy and a planned economy?
3. Do changing demands affect production?
4. What is the mechanism of producing goods and services in a market economy?
5. Give the advantages of a market economy?
6. Give disadvantages of a market economy?
Exercise 5. Find synonyms among these words
Waste, train, construct, complete, split, require, perform, constant, full, need, carry out, divide, permanent, lose, teach, build, broad, overall, task, appropriate, attain, operate, purchase, receipt,, expenditures, wide, purpose, total, corresponding, achieve, work, buy, revenue, expenses.
Exercise 6. Find antonyms among these words
Easy, improve, quick, create, reduce, difficult, slow, break, worsen, increase, always, save, opposite, general, high, widen, loss, leakage, simple, same, never, particular, spend, low, reduce, sophisticated, profit, injection.
Exercise 7. Fill in the gaps, using the verbs in correct form
1. The worker almost never -- (to make) a complete product.
2. Each operation --- (to be) a specific task of one worker.
3. The production of relatively simple things may – (to break) into hundred separate operations.
4. Adam Smith --- (to provide) what --- (to have) now---- (to become) the most celebrated account of specialization.
5. If the whole operation --- (carry out) from start to finish by one employee, he would --- (to be able to) make only a few dozens each day.
6. Why should specialization --- (to lead) to such great increases in productivity?
7. No time --- (to waste) in moving from one job to another.
8. The division of lab our --- (to make) possible a much greater use of machinery.
Exercise 8. put questions in italics
1. The same question raises additional considerations.
2. They will depend upon a number of things.
3. The age composition of a population takes account of the proportions in the different age groups.
4. The normal age of retirement in the UK is 63 years.
5. This amounts to a reduction in the supply of lab our.
6. Higher incomes make leisure more attractive.
Exercise 9. Translate using all the active possible
1. В рыночной экономике невелика или очень мала необходимость в планировании, контроле и широкомасштабном вмешательстве со стороны государства (правительства) в экономический процесс.
2. В условиях рыночной экономики изменения потребительского спроса играют заметную роль в формировании политики фирм.
3. Чтобы быть конкурентоспособными и увеличить доходы, фирмы должны постоянно изучать спрос и иметь свою деятельность в ответ на его изменения.
4. Чем более модный товар, тем более высокую цену надо за него платить.
5. Некоторые виды услуг, например здравоохранение и образование, не могут быть полностью обеспечены только частными фирмами.
6. Рыночная экономика характеризуется частной собственностью на ресурсы и использованием системы рынков и цен для управления экономической деятельностью.
7. В такой системе каждый ее участник волен преследовать свои собственные интересы, каждая экономическая единица стремится получить наибольший возможный доход на основе индивидуального принятия решений.
Unit 4. Mixed economics
Vocabulary notes
Significant faults – значительные недостатки
At one extreme… at other extreme- на одном полюсе … на другом
To exercise considerable economic freedom of choice – иметь значительную экономическую свободу выбора
Restriction -ограничение
Whilst –в то время как, пока
State-controlled industry- промышленность, контролируемая государством
To avoid disadvantages –избегать недостатков
To enjoy the benefits –иметь преимущества, пользоваться преимуществом
To interact - взаимодействовать
To solve economic problems – решать экономические проблемы
A share of the output – доля в объеме производства
Essential items –товары и услуги первой необходимости
A range of business –ряд компаний, фирм
Exercise 1. Read and translate the text
Command and market economies both have significant faults. Partly because of this, an intermediate system has developed, known as mixed economies.
A mixed economy means very much what it says as it contains elements of both market and planned economies. At one extreme we have a command economy, which does not allow individuals to make economic decisions, at the other extreme we have a free market, where individuals exercise considerable economic freedom of choice without any government restrictions. Between these two extremes lies a mixed economy. In mixed economies some resources are controlled by the government whilst others are used in response to the demands of consumers.
Technically, all the economies of the world are mixed: it is just the balance elements between market and planned elements that alter. Some countries are nearer to command economies, which others are closer to free market economies. So, for example, Hong Kong has some state- controlled industry, while Cuba has some privately owned and controlled firms.
The aim of mixed economies is to avoid the disadvantages of both systems while enjoying the benefits that they both offer. So, in mixed economy the government and the private sector interact in solving economic problems. The state controls the share of the output through taxation and transfer payments and intervenes to supply essential items such as health, education and defiance, while private firms produce cars, furniture, electrical items and similar, less essential products.
The UK is a mixed economy: some services are provided by the sate, for example, health care and defiance whilst a range of privately owned businesses offer other goods and services. The Conservative government under Margaret Thatcher switched many businesses from being state-owned and controlled to being privately owned as part of its privatization programmer. This has taken the UK economy further away from the planned system.
Assignments
Exercise 1. Fill in the gaps with the words and expressions from the text
1. Command and market economies both have ---.
2. --- contains elements of both market and planned economies.
3. --- we have a command economy, which does not ---,--- we have a free market, where individuals --- without ---.
4. Some countries are --- to command economies; whole others are ---- to free market economies.
5. It is just --- between market and planned element that --- in all the economies of the world.
6. The aim of mixed economies is --- the disadvantages of both systems while --- the benefits that they both offer.
7. In a mixed economy the government and the private sector --- in ---.
8. The state controls --- through --- and---- and intervenes to supply ---.
9. The Conservative government switched many state-owned businesses to being privately owned as part of its.
Exercise 3. Find in the text English equivalents for the following
Избегать недостатков, частный сектор, налогообложение, централизованно принимать экономические решения, на одном полюсе – на другом…, без ограничений, взаимодействовать в решении проблем, пользоваться благами, правительство, возлагаемое.
Exercise 4. Increase your vocabulary
To enjoy (syn.- to have as an advantage)- иметь, пользоваться
To enjoy a boom\to enjoy a high standard of living
To enjoy a basic standard of living
To enjoy the benefits
Make some sentences of your own with the above expressions
Translate:
1) Иметь хорошее здоровье
2) все граждане государства должны иметь равные права.
3) эта пьеса очень популярна.
Exercise 5. Check your grammar
It is (was) … that (who) – именно
It is the intention of the planners that there should be enough goods and services for all.
It is these disadvantages that have led to many countries abandoning planned economies.
It is consumers who decide what is to be produced.
It is just the balance between market and planned elements that alters.
Rewrite the following sentences using the emphatic construction
1. Television was invented in this country.
2. Mathematicians have solved complicated problems with the help of computers.
3. I first saw this play on TV.
4. Two doctors made this discovery.
5. Owing to the rain we could not come.
Exercise 6. Answer the questions
1. Are there really pure examples of planned and market economies in the world?
2. What is a mixed economy?
3. What type of economy is the UK?
Exercise 7. Find synonyms among these words
Enterprise, decision, acquire, business, obtain, need, event, proprietor, case, owner, responsible, solution, liable, require, attain, desire, revenue, widen, merely, steadily, obvious, fast, affluent, damage, relate, deplorable, furthermore, rapid harm, connect, poor, rich, besides, wish, income, increase, only, constantly achieve evident.
Exercise 8. Find antonyms among these words
Strength, profit, success, security, weakness, amount, failure, quantity, danger, loss,
Exercise 9. Fill in the gaps, using the verbs in correct forms
1. The different types of business organization --- (to find) in the UK may … (to classify) under five headings.
2. He … (to have) the sole rights to such profits as may … (to accrue) or, alternatively … (to bear) the sole responsibility for such losses.
3. The one-person business --- (to be) still far more numerous than other type of business organization.
4. Ownership and control --- (to vest) in one person who --- (to enjoy) all the fruits of success.
5. He --- (to have) no need --- (to consult) colleagues when changes of policy --- (to require).
6. We should --- (to expect) this type of organization --- (to be) extremely flexible.
7. All his personal possessions may --- (to seize) – (to meet) creditor’s demand.
8. Finance --- (to restrict) to the amounts which the entrepreneur is able --- (to provide) from his own resources and whatever sums he can --- (to borrow) on his own security.
Exercise 10. Put questions in italics
1. The production process is split into a very large number of individual operations.
2. Constant repetition leads to great dexterity.
3. Specialization means that many different occupations are created.
4. A worker can be trained very quickly for the performance of a simple operation.
Exercise 11.Translate into English
1. В реальной действительности экономические системы располагаются где-то между чисто рыночной и плановой экономикой.
2. Смешанная экономика – это система, при которой частная собственность и рынок, а также правительство и общественные институты, энергично участвующие в обеспечении экономической стабильности и перераспределения доходов, взаимодействуют в решении экономических проблем.
Unit 5. Microeconomics and Macroeconomics
Vocabulary notes
A lab our economist- специалист по экономике труда
An energy economist –специалист по экономике электроэнергии
A monetary economist- специалист по монетарной экономики
An international economist- специалист по международной экономики
Congestion- перенаселенность
To cut across – не соответствовать
A detailed treatment-детальный, пробный анализ
An individual household- отдельное домашнее хозяйство
To aggregate –собирать в одно целое
Aggregate, n. -совокупность
In the aggregate – в совокупности
Aggregate, adj -совокупный.
The relative output – относительный объем производства
General equilibrium theory –теория общего равновесия
To study simultaneously –одновременно изучать
The complete pattern –полная структура, система
To lose track of the phenomena –потерять след явлений
To devise judicious simplifications –выработать разумные упрощения
To keep the analysis manageable –позволять проводить анализ
To distort reality –искажать реальность
To preserve the simplicity of the analysis –сохранить простоту анализа
To neglect the chain of indirect effects – пренебрегать косвенным воздействием, совокупностью косвенных результатов, эффектов
To secure higher wages –получить более высокую заработную плату
Indirectly induced effects –воздействие, вызванное косвенными причинами
Partial analysis –частичный анализ
To sweep under the carpet –прятать, маскировать
To simplify deliberately –намеренно упрощать
To retain a manageable analysis –сохранить возможность анализа (выполнимый, поддающийся выполнению анализ)
The breakdown of consumer goods –классификация товаров потребления
A single bundle –отдельная единица, величина
Exercise 1. Read and translate the text
Many economists specialize in a particular branch of the subject. For example, there are labs our economists, energy economists, monetary economists and international economists. What distinguishes these economists is the segment of economic life in which they are interested. Lab our economics deals with problems of the lab our market as viewed by firms, workers and society as a whole. Urban economics deals with city problems: land use, transport, congestion and housing. However, we need not classify branches of economics according to the approach or methodology that is used. The very broad division of approaches into microeconomic and macroeconomic cuts across the large number of subject groupings cited above.
Microeconomic analysis offers a detailed treatment of individual decisions about particular commodities.
For example, we might study why individual households prefer cars to bicycles and how producers decide whether to produce cars or bicycles. We can then aggregate the behavior of all households and all firms to discuss total car purchases and total car production. Within a market economy we can discuss the market for cars. Comparing this with the market for bicycles, we may be able to explain the relative output of these two goods. The sophisticated branch of microeconomics known as general equilibrium theory extends this approach to its logical conclusion. It studies simultaneously every market for every commodity. From this it is hoped that we can understand the complete pattern of consumption, production and exchange in the whole economy at a point in time.
If you think this sounds very complicated you are correct. It is. For many purposes, the analysis becomes so complicated that we tend to lose truck of the phenomena in which we were interested. The interesting task for economics, a task that retains an element of art in economic science, is to devise judicious simplifications, which keep the analysis manageable without distorting reality too much. It is here that micro economists and macroeconomists proceed down different avenues.
Micro economists tend to offer a detailed treatment of one aspect of economic behavior, but ignore interactions with the rest of the economy in order to preserve the simplicity of the analysis. A microeconomic analysis of miner’s wages would emphasize the characteristics of miners and the ability of mine owners to pay. It would largely neglect the chain of indirect effects to which a rise in miner’s wages might give rise. For example, car workers might use the precedent of the miner’s pay increase to secure higher wages in the car industry, thus being able to afford larger houses, which burned more coal in heating systems. When microeconomic analysis ignores such indirectly induced effects it is said to be partial analysis.
In some instance, indirect effects may not be too important and it will make sense for economists to devote their to very detailed analyses of particular industries or activities. In other circumstances, the indirect effects are too important to be swept under the carpet and alternative simplification must be found.
Macroeconomic emphasizes the interaction in the economy as whole. It deliberately simplifies the individual building blocks of the analysis in order to retain a manageable analysis of the complete interaction of the economy.
For example, macroeconomists typically do not worry about the breakdown of consumer goods into cars, bicycles, televisions and calculations. They prefer to treat them all as a single bundle called consumer goods because they are more interested in studying the interaction between household’s purchases of consumer goods and firms decisions about purchases of machinery and buildings.
Assignments
Exercise 1. Suggest the Russian equivalents
Cuts across the large number of subject grouping cited above, the sophisticated branch of microeconomics, the complete pattern of consumption, production and exchange, to devise judicious simplification, keep the analysis manageable, to retain a manageable analysis, indirectly induced effects.
Exercise 2. Fill in the gaps with the words and expressions from the text
1. What distinguishes different economists is … in which they are interested.
2. Urban economists deal with city problems land, use, transport --- and housing.
3. We can also classify branches of economics according to --- that is used.
4. The very broad division of approaches into microeconomics and macroeconomic---- the large number of subject grouping.
5. To discuss total car purchases and total car production we can --- the behavior of all house holds and all firms.
6. The sophisticated branch of microeconomics known as – studies --- every market for every commodity.
7. The task for economics is to devise --- simplifications, which keep the analysis --- without ----.
8. Micro economists tend to offer ---- of one aspect of economic behavior but --- with the rest of the economy in order to – of the analysis, largely --- the chain of ---.
9. When microeconomic analysis ignores such indirectly induced effects it is said to be---.
10. Macroeconomics --- the individual building blocks of the analysis in order to – a manageable analysis of – of the economy.
11. Macroeconomists prefer to treat cars, bicycles, televisions and calculators as a single --- called ‘consumer goods’.
Exercise 3. Check your grammar
Define each of the words given below, using the pronouns who and which:
а) an energy macroeconomics is…
b) economist is … who ..
c) microeconomics is ….,which…
d) international economics is …
e) a monetary economist is …
f) consumer goods are…
g) a worker is ..
h) a miner is ..
i) coal is…
Exercise 4. Complete the following sentences using adjectives or adverbs
E.g. a relatively difficult branch (adverb and adjective).
An expensive cassette player (adjective).
To buy something cheaply(adverb).
1. This is a --- book to read.(comparative, easy)
2. ----car production is not always --- to estimate ---. (total, easy, general).
3. Even some --- tools of --- analysis are not -- known.( common, economic, general).
4. Some microeconomic analyses offer ---detailed treatments of --- decision. (extreme, individual).
5. If we compare the market for cars and bicycles ---, we may be able to offer a --- explanation for their ---- prices. (careful, good, relative).
6. --- she managed to pass their --- exams ---. (fortunate, final, easy).
7. My tutor emphasized the – importance of putting ideas in a --- order.( great, logical)
8. --- analysis ignores ---- induced effects. ( partial, indirect).
9. The – economist keeps his analysis --- without --- distorting reality. (sensible, manageable, undue).
10. She is an --- novelist --- something --- and --- happens in her stories. (excellent, unusual, exciting, constant).
Exercise 5. Find in text English equivalents for the following
Перенаселенность, собирать в одно целое, теория общего равновесия, искажать реальность, подробный анализ, сохранить простату анализа, косвенное (непрямое) воздействие, взаимодействие внутри экономики.
Exercise 6. Answer the questions
1. What distinguishes an energy economist from an urban economist?
2. Are the same questions asked in each area of economic life?
3. What is needed before total car purchases and production can be discussed?
4. What does the general equilibrium theory examine?
5. What can be understood from such a study?
6. What happens when an analysis becomes too complicated?
7. What can keep an analysis manageable?
8. What do most macroeconomists leave out of their analysis?
9. What does partial analysis ignore?
10. Why wouldn’t most macroeconomists make a breakdown of consumer goods?
Exercise 7. Find synonyms among these words
Type, steady, level, runaway, rise, standard, expense, medium, cause, confidence, replace, attempt, rate, constant, kind, galloping, means, reason, trust, change, try, total, increase, lead to, aggregate, achieve, result in, generate, reach, produce, reduce, tempo, decrease, expenditure.
Exercise 8. Find antonyms among these words
Rise, lose, fixed, excess, growth, private, income, fall, find, decline, flexible, deficiency, expenditure, public, opponent, growth, better, easy, less, wide, supporter, decline, worse, difficult, more, narrow.
Exercise 9. Fill in the gaps using verbs in correct form
1. Other commodities, such as cigarettes, …( to use) as money.
2. So great --- (to be) the loss of confidence in Kazakhstan that the new currency had … (to give) a new name.
3. Another type of inflation --- ( to describe) as suppressed inflation.
4. The effect on prices --- (to minimize) by the use of such devices as price controls and rationing.
5. If there are unemployed resources available, an increase in demand can --- (to meet) by bringing these resources into employment.
6. If the total demand for goods and services continues – (to increase). A full employment situation --- (to reach).
7. In order ---(to increase) the rate of capital accumulation, resources will have--- (to transfer) from the production of consumer goods to the production of capital goods.
8. The possession of wealth --- (to confer) certain social advantages.
9. In order --- (to get) people --- (to work) harder, it --- (to be) usually necessary --- (to offer) higher rewards.
10. Unemployment which --- (to arise) from immobilities in the labour force than alack of demand for labour – (to know) as frictional unemployment
Exercise 10. Translate using all the active possible
1. Макроэкономика – это из основных разделов экономической теории, который изучает поведение экономики как единого целого. Она анализирует взаимодействие факторов, влияющих на рост национального производства, а также такие процессы, как безработица, инфляция, и т.д.
2. Объектом макроэкономики является именно взаимодействие этих величин внутри экономики, при этом сами величины рассматриваются упрощенно, абстрактно.
3. Микроэкономика – это один из основных разделов экономической теории, изучающий поведение отдельных экономических единиц, их взаимодействие на рынках, в результате которого формируются цены на производимые товары и услуги .
4. Микроэкономика стремится к детальному рассмотрению поведения какой-либо экономической единицы, при этом не уделяя достаточного внимания косвенному воздействию этого поведения на другие экономические единицы и на экономику в целом.
Supplementary reading for further discussion
A growth of economic potential of power consumption
Recession of industrial production of Kazakhstan with 1990 on 1995. It is possible to estimate on 53%. Approximately .on as much it is possible to expert decrease in the real GDP. The main reason is a crash of trade with republics former USSR.
While the trade was narrowed, relative prices (for example, the imported electric power were increased and have resulted in crash of mechanisms of payment between the enterprises that has resulted in accumulation at them of huge debts. Now large part of foreign trade of Kazakhstan is still conducted with Russia. Even then, the mechanisms of trade between the CIS countries are normalized, the industry of Kazakhstan will require to a certain extent restricting.
All estimations show, that while the industry will be restricted, its production will be reduced within several years.
On the other hand, there are positive tendencies, which undoubtedily, will result in restoration of economy. A major factor is the presence of power and mineral resources, which already attract foreign investors. It is expected, that the development of oil, gas and mineral resources will be the basic source of economic growth of republic. But it is not necessary to forget (overlook) and that the iron and steel industry connected to these branches, is a power – intensive branch.
Types of intersystem agreements
Agreements on exchange with energy can be divided into agreements in the sphere of production servicers and transfer agreements.
Production services There are many services in the sphere of production, depending on operations performed by involved parties. The most common types of production are the described in the Final Report (system capacity, block capacity, emergency energy, exchange in cases of maintenance servicing, conservation of energy and exchange on difference).
Agreements on production services also can be divided into agreement on purchase of capacity and purchase of energy. A purchase of capacity provides the right to use equipment; purchase of energy presumes usage of fuel or water resources as a power source.
Transfer services transfer services can be defined as services, which ensure a transfer of energy or active or jet capacity from one or several sources. These services can be supplied both vertically integrated companies, and one or several separate companies specializing in these types of services.
Transfer services are frequently called transit services, if a transfer between two companies carried out by a transfer system belonging to a third company.
Since the transition from the centralized market economy occurs maintenance and planning employees will face even more economic problems. They should operate in new conditions, to develop new approaches and to use the newest technical and economic methods and models.
Types of costs
Working with all aspects of pricing (capacity, energy, service in energy transfer, additional services), when drafting an agreement it is recommended to determine such costs as:
-costs of capacity are related to investments into development of the installed capacities and depreciation. In order words, a level of depreciation should be determined proceeding from the economic situation in each country. Also depreciation should be calculated for a certain period of time, e.x.15-25 years. Such approach makes it possible to define the factor of depreciation of investment which can be expressed in $/kW/ year.
- operating costs reflect the costs related to electric energy. These costs include the cost of fuel, thermal efficiency of a block, various costs for shutdown and maintenance service, including operating personned and equipment.
- costs of transfer take into consideration the costs related to various types of services in the sphere of production, as well as losses in a network, expressed in cents /kW/h. occasionally, regulating commissions can assert the costs in cents kW/h/km and completely exclude losses from the parameter, by shifting their payment to a consumer, if the direct agreements were made.
- administrative costs are related to the costs of dispatching, settlement, sampling, issuance of invoices, etc.
- development of a technique of calculation of the costs of production and transfer and with the purpose of execution of interaction between countries, preservation of existing access to information in cases of information bank.
- training in a economy and management since engineers knowing energy systems, will acquire new knowledge giving them a potential to develop and to prepare contracts for their submission for consideration and approval by the management of the company.
Power saving principles of price setting
As economy are moving to new more open market forms the following main principles of price setting are to be considered as price:
-level of power prices should be for x% higher that expenses for power generation x is required level of compensation of investments. Expenses are to cover internal expenditures such as ecological measures. Such approach to price setting in power industry guarantees the possibility to achieve the certain level of investments profitability to satisfy the future demand;
-level of retail priced is to be at x% higher that expenses to achieve aims and targets of society and the Government, including profit investments required for financing of power industry and encouraging of power saving;
-level of prices is to be fixed in such way that it will cover all primary expenses for power generations within short – terms period only varying expenses are to considered, within long-terms period fixed expenses are to be included as well;
- during sale at world markets prices are to include equivalents existing in export markets and cover transport expenses and quality differences;
-prices for electrical power should be clear so that generator and consumers can make right decisions.
Список литературы
1. English File. Intermediate. Students book”. Oxford university press. Oxford, 2005.
2. “Across cultures”. Elizabeth Sharman. Longman, 2004.
3. “New Cutting Edge”. Intermediate. Student,s book. Workbook. Sarah Cunningham, Peter Moor. Longman, 2005.
Содержание
1. Unit 1. Measuring economic activity 3
2. Unit 2. Economic system 8
3. Unit 3. Market economics 13
4. Unit 4. Mixed economics 18
5. Unit 5. Microeconomics and Macroeconomics 22