Некоммерческое акционерное  общество
АЛМАТИНСКИЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ ЭНЕРГЕТИКИ И СВЯЗИ
Кафедра иностранных языков

АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК
Методические указания для формирования навыков перевода текстов
(для специальности 5В060200)

Алматы, 2013

СОСТАВИТЕЛЬ: С.Б. Бухина. Методические указания для формирования навыков перевода текстов (для специальности 5В060200) – Алматы: АУЭС, 2013. – 36 с.

Данные методические указания предназначены для развития умений чтения и перевода технических текстов в области информатики. Методические указания включают в себя аутентичный текстовый материал технического характера с упражнениями и заданиями для усвоения лексико-грамматических конструкций и терминов по данной специальности. Содержательная сторона методических указаний современна, актуальна и соответствует тематике изучаемой дисциплины.

Материал может найти применение, как на аудиторных занятиях, так и в практике самостоятельной работы с целью формирования иноязычной профессиональной компетенции студентов – бакалавров специальности 5В060200.

Рецензент: канд. филол. наук, доцент В.С. Козлов

Печатается по плану издания некоммерческого акционерного общества «Алматинский университет энергетики и связи» на 2013 г.

© НАО «Алматинский университет энергетики и связи», на 2013г.

UNIT 1 Programming

1.    Memorize the words:

completion – завершение, окончание

vice versa – наоборот

sequence – последовательность

value – ценность;

firmware – встроенная (в ПЗУ) программа

execute – выполнять, исполнять

to compile – собирать; составлять; компилировать

slightly – слегка; немного; чуть-чуть

split - расщеплять

assign – передавать; возложить задачи

hexadecimal – шести-значный

operand – матем. объект (действия), операнд

denary – десятеричный

error-prone – склонный к, подверженный ошибкам

fairly – фактически, буквально

safe – зд. надежный

iteration – повторение

loop – петля; цикл

mnemonics [ni`monik] – мнемоника, мнемотехника (совокупность приемов и способов, облегчающих запоминание)

 

2.Read the text and tell what are the concepts of program, machine code and instruction set.

 

The concept of a program

A computer program is a sequence of instructions or programming language statements that a programmer must write to make a computer perform certain tasks. To write a well-structured program, a programmer requires a programming language to support the following “program constructs”:

-        sequence execution of the program usually following the order in which the steps are written;

-        selectiona decision between alternative routes through the program that involves at least one condition;

-        repetitiona step or sequence of steps repeated within the program as an iteration or loop;

-        subroutine a sub-program such as a procedure or function that can be started or “called” by a program instruction and can return control to the next instruction after the “calling” instruction on completion of the processing.

A computer’s processor can only run a computer program in the form of a file of machine code, which is a sequence of binary code representing instructions for the processor. Each series, or ‘family’, of processors has a specific instruction set that contains an instruction for each operation that the processor family has been designed to perform. An instruction set can be thought of as the ‘language’ in which machine code is written for that family of processor.

An instruction set includes data transfer instructions for:

-        setting the value held in a register (a small, temporary memory location within the processor);

-        moving data from an internal memory location to a register or vice versa;

-        reading data from an input or storage device and writing data to an output or storage device.

An instruction set also includes arithmetic and logic operations for:

-        adding, subtracting, multiplying or dividing the values of two registers;

-        comparing the values in two registers;

-        performing bit-wise logic operations.

An instruction set also includes instructions for controlling the flow of a program, including:

-        jumping to an instruction at an earlier point in the same sequence of instructions, to produce an iteration, repetition or loop;

-        conditionally jumping to an instruction at a later point in the same sequence of instructions, producing a decision;

-        jumping to the beginning of a subroutine – before executing the jump, the processor saves the ‘return’ address of the next instruction as the point to which to return; the subroutine ends with a return instruction on which the processor jumps back to the return address.

When machine code runs, the processor fetches (meaning gets) an instruction from internal memory, decodes it and carries out (‘executes’) the required operation. It then repeats this cycle with the next instruction. Sometimes the processor has internal firmware, called ‘microcode’, to simplify its electronic circuitry for decoding and executing complex instructions.

 

Programming languages

          Computer programming languages can be divides into two types: low-level, closer to machine language, and high-level, closer to a human language such as Arabic, English or Hindi. Each type has its own advantages and drawbacks.

 

Low-level languages

a.    Machine language

Machine language has the lowest level of language, because the long string of zeros and ones in machine code is so difficult for a programmer to read or write. Even when some of these bits represent a number, the binary number system is not one in which people think most fluently. Each complete machine language instruction consists of an operation code (known as an ‘opcode’), which may be as short as a single byte, even for 32- or 64-bit processor. For example, the following is one opcode from the instruction set of a PIC16F627 microcontroller:

110000

 

Some opcodes require one or more operands, which are numerals values or memory addresses upon which they operate. The operand follows the opcode in the program, for example:

 

110000          01011010

 

Machine code can be represented in a slightly more programmer-friendly format where each group of four bits (half a byte or a ‘nibble’) is coded as one hexadecimal (base-16) digit. Each ‘hex’ digit can have one of sixteen values: 0, 1, …, 8, 9, A, B, C, D E and F. For example, the operand 01011010 can be split into two nibbles: 0101 and 1010. In hexadecimal, 0101 is 5 and 1010 is A, so the operand can be written as 5A. Although this is easier to read than binary, it is not at all clear to the reader what is means, as the following fragment of machine code shows:

 

:100000006E28000000000000090025088A01820710

 

:10001000603431343234333461343434353436344A

 

:10002000623437343834393463342A343034233446

 

:10003000643429308400831683139B0183161C14B7

 

:100040001A088000840A9B0A83122D300402031DC3

         

It is fairly safe to say that no one writes whole programs in machine language today.

 

b.    Assembly language

As an alternative to machine language, programmers developed an assembly language for each family of processor. Assembly language is considerably easier to read and write than machine language. A short word or abbreviation acts as a memory aid, or ‘mnemonic’ code, for each machine language instruction’s opcode. For example, a valid instruction in the PIC16F627 microcontroller’s assembly language is

 

MOVLW         0 x 5A

 

The mnemonic MOVLM stands for MOVe the Literal operand into the Working register and represents the six-bit machine language opcode 110000. A literal operand simply means the value of the operand itself, so the operand is the hexadecimal (for which 0 x is a marker) value 5A. So MOVLW 0 x 5A represents the machine language instruction that we met earlier:

 

110000      01011010

 

This instruction moves the hex value 5A (90 in everyday, denary numbers) into the microcontroller’s working register. The assembly language instruction is more compact and easier to understand than the machine language instruction.

The following fragment of assembly code shows that you would still need considerable experience of the assembly language before you would begin to feel fluent in it. Almost the only whole words are in the comments, preceded by semicolons.

 

Label         Opcode       Operand and Comments

 

                   ORG           0 x 2100

                   DE              “1234”    ; default code stored in EEPROM

vectors        ORG          0

                   GOTO        main

                   NOP

                   RETFIE     ;ignore interrupt

ktable                           ;determine pressed key’s code from kcode

                   MOVF       kcode,   W

                   CLRF        PCLATH

                   ADDWF    PCL,   F

                   DT             0 x 60;  data lookup table directive

                   DT            “123a”

                   DT            “456b”

                   DT            “789c”

                   DT            “*0#d”

eep_read                         ;copy EEPROM contents to RAM from cod to cod_end-1

                   MOVLW    cod

                   MOVWF     FSR

                   BSF             STATUS,   RPO

                   BCF             STATUS,   IRP

                   CLRF           EEADR

 

Assembly code must be translated into machine code before it can be run by a processor. This can be done manually, but it is time-consuming and error-prone to look up all the opcodes to substitute for the mnemonics. Fortunately, it is a relatively straightforward task to write a translation program called an assembler for an assembly language. The assembly code input to the assembler is known as the source code.

The assembler rapidly and reliably looks up the mnemonic and converts it to machine code output, known as object code. The translation process produces one machine language instruction for each assembly language instruction.

Low-level languages are very machine-oriented, because they refer to hardware such as the processor’s registers, input and output ports and specific locations in internal memory. An advantage of this characteristic of low-level languages is that a skillful programmer has complete freedom of choice of instructions and direct control over the processor’s communication with its input, output and storage devices. The programmer can write very efficient programs that:

-        fit into limited storage space;

-        require limited Ram;

-        run rapidly.

The disadvantages of low-level languages are that:

-        their lack of relation to a human language makes them difficult for a programmer to read;

-        their machine-oriented nature makes them hard for a programmer to learn;

-        the processor-specific nature of the instruction set means that programs are not transferable or portable between families of processor.

 

High-level languages

          High-level languages look far similar to a human language or mathematical notation than low-level languages. This makes them easier to read and write, test, debug and maintain. They are intended to help programmers to solve problems rather than to micro-manage the computer’s hardware. A high level language is independent of the instruction set of any particular family of processor. Different languages are designed to solve different sorts of problem (Table 1).

 

Use

Language

Business applications

COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language)

Scientific applications

FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslation)

 

General-purpose use and education

BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code)

Visual BASIC

Pascal

Delphi

LISP

LOGO

C and C++

Java

 

Depending on the type of high-level language, a program consists of procedural steps, called statements, or of facts and rules. Procedural languages provide the programmer with statements that include:

-        reading input from a keyboard and assigning it to a variable;

-        displaying or printing output expressions or graphics;

-        performing calculations and comparisons on variables with different data types and data structures;

-        selection of a rout through the program;

-        repetition of part of the program;

-        calling function and procedure subroutines;

-        creating, writing to and reading from files on storage media.

A high-level language program must be translated into machine code before it can be run by a processor. However, high-level language statements need translation software that is more complex than an assembler. One statement in a high-level language is translated into one or more machine language instructions. Consider the simple task of adding together two numbers represented by variables B and C and assigning the result to variable A. In a high-level language, the programmer might write:

 

A ← B + C

 

In a low-level language, the programmer might write:

 

LDA   B                          Load the contents of the memory location whose address

                                      is represented by the variable B into the accumulator

                                      register.

 

ADD   C                         Add the contents of the memory location whose address

                                      is represented by the variable C to the contents of the

                                      contents of the accumulator, holding the result in the

                                      accumulator.

 

STA   A                          Copy the contents of the accumulator into the memory

                                        location whose address is represented by the variable A.

 

          Table 2 compares the features of high-level and low-level languages. Sources code written in a high-level language is portable between families of processor and operating systems, provided that someone has written a translation program to create the appropriate object code for the target processor and operating system.

          There are two types of translation program that differ depending on the high-level language (Table 3). A compiler program translates all the high-level source code into object code by a process known as ‘compilation’. Compilation must be completed before the program can be run. An analogy is translating text from English into another language and then giving the complete translated text to someone to speak. If there are errors in the source code, the compiler produces an error report; the programmer corrects the errors and compiles the whole program again. The debugging of a large program before it can be run can be a slow, iterative process. Once there are no errors in the source code program, the compiler produces a machine code program that the processor can run rapidly.

 

High-level language

Low-level language

Program statements are problem-oriented.

Program instructions are machine-oriented.

One statement translates to many machine code instructions.

One assembly language instruction translates to one machine code instruction.

Programs are portable between different types of computer.

Programs are not portable between different types of computer.

Programs must be translated to run on a processor.

Machine language needs no translation.

Translation to machine language is relatively complex.

Translation from assembly language to machine language is relatively simple.

Programs are relatively easy to read and write.

Programs are relatively hard to read and write.

Programs are relatively easy to test, debug and maintain.

Programs are relatively hard to test, debug and maintain.

Table 2. Comparison of high-level and low-level languages.

 

 

Assembler

Compiler

Interpreter

Translates processor-specific assembly code into machine code for a specific processor

Translates high-level code into machine code for a specific processor and operating system.

Translates high-level language statement and executes them on a specific processor and operating system

Translates an entire program but does not run it.

Translates an entire program but does not run it.

Translates and executes a program on the target processor, usually one statement at a time, but does not create machine code.

Translates one source code instruction to one machine code instruction.

Translates one source code statement to one or more machine code instructions.

Executes one source code statement as one or more instructions.

Table 3. Comparison of translation programs.

 

An interpreter translates a high-level language program in a very different way. The interpreter runs directly on the target processor, usually analyzing one source code statement at a time and running appropriate subroutines to give effect to, or “execute”, it. An analogy is translating text from English into another language and speaking the translation aloud sentence by sentence without writing down the translation – if you want to speak the translation again later, you have to repeat the translation. If the interpreter finds an error in the source code, it produces an error report and stops the execution. The process of translation slows the execution, but an interpreter can speed up the debugging of a large program, as the program does not need to be compiled after every edit.

 

3.    Answer the questions:

1) What are the benefits of writing in a high-level language?

2) What is the connection between source code and object code?

3) Describe two differences between an assembler and a compiler.

4) In which sort of situation is it better to use a low-level language rather than a high-level language?

 

4.              Describe the basic features of low-level and high level programming languages and appreciate their benefits.

 

5.    Speak on the functions of translation programs.

 

6.    Memorize the words and their meanings.

ultimately – в основе, в корне; в конечном счете, в конце концов

deal with – иметь дело с кем-л., чем-л.

rare – редкий, нечастый

black art – черная магия (набор таинственных и плохо проверенных недокументированных приемов проектирования или программирования, разработанных применительно к конкретной системе или приложению)

Unix – многозадачная операционная система Юникс со множественным доступом

kernel – ядро, т.е. часть операционной системы, обычно находящаяся в ОЗУ и выполняющая наиболее важные задачи такие, как безопасность, обслуживание таймера, управление диспетчеризацией задач, дисковым вводом-выводом, распределением ОЗУ и системных ресурсов и др., т.е. обеспечивающая базовую функциональность данной ОС

relic – пережиток, реликт (прошлого), реликвия; лингв. архаизм (устаревшая грамматическая форма или слово)

distinguish – различить, проводить различие

compiled language – транслируемый язык (в отличие от интерпретируемого)

source code – исходный текст (программы)

OS (=operating system) – операционная программа (ОС)

interpreted language – интерпретируемый язык

utility – утилита, сервисная программа

shell – оболочка (пользовательский интерфейс); командный процессор (в операционной системе UNIX)

BC (binary code) – язык вычислений произвольной точности с С-подобным синтаксисом

SED (smoke-emitting diode) – излучающий дым диод (диод, сгоревший в результате неправильного включения, выпустив наружу свой «магический дым», обеспечивающий его работоспособность)

AWK – язык программирования для UNIX, названный по именам его авторов (Al V. Aho, Peter J. Weinberger и Brian W. Kernighan). Основан на синтаксисе языка Си и имеет несколько версий

TCL – (Tool Command Language) – инструментальный командный язык

LISP – (List Processing Language) - язык обработки списков

P-code language (pseudocode) – псевдокод (язык, напоминающий язык программирования и используемый для описания структуры программы)

Python – язык программирования, полноценный объектно-ориентированный ЯВУ, часто применяемый в качестве языка сценариев при написании интернет-приложений

Perl (=PERL) – (Practical Extraction and Report Language) – интерпретируемый язык. Создан Ларри Уоллом (Larry Wall) в 1989 г. Обычно используется для создания динамически генерируемых Web-страниц. Используется также системными администраторами и Web – мастерами для работы и изменения текстов, файлов и процессов.

 

7.              Read the text. Define each kind of high-level languages (advantages, drawbacks, examples). State main ideas in Russian.

 

Every program ultimately has to be executed as a stream of bytes that are instructions in your computer’s machine language. But human beings don’t deal with machine language very well; doing so has become a rare, black art even among hackers.

Almost all UNIX code except a small amount of direct hardware-interface support in the kernel itself is nowadays written in a high-level language. (The “high-level” in this term is a historical relic meant to distinguish them from “low-level” assembler languages, which are basically thin wrappers around machine code.)

There are several different kinds of high-level languages. In order to talk them, you will find it useful to bear in mind that the source code of a program (the human-created, editable version) has to go through some kind of translation into machine code that the machine can actually run.

 

Compiled languages

The most conventional kind of language is a compiled language. Compiled languages get translated into runnable files of binary machine code by a special program called (logically enough) a compiler. Once the binary has been generated, you can run it directly without looking at the source code again. (Most software is delivered as compiled binaries made from code you don’t see.)

Compiled languages tend to give excellent performance and have the most complete access to the OS, but also to be difficult to program in.

C, the language in which UNIX itself is written, is by far the most important of them (with its variant C + +). FORTAN is another compiled language still used among engineers and scientists but years older and much more primitive. In the UNIX world no other compiled languages are in mainstream use. Outside it, COBOL is very widely used for financial and business software.

There used to be many other compiled languages, but most of them have either gone extinct or are strictly research tools. If you are a new UNIX developer using a compiled language, it is overwhelmingly likely to be C or C + +.

 

Interpreted languages

An interpreted language depends on an interpreter program that reads the source code and translates it on the fly into computations and system calls. The source has to be re-interpreted (and the interpreter present) each time the code is executed.

Interpreted languages tend to be slower than compiled languages, and often have limited access to the underlying operating system and hardware. On the other hand, they tend to be easier to program and more forgiving of coding errors than compiled languages.

Many UNIX utilities, including the shell and BC and SED and AWK, are effectively small interpreted languages. BASICs are usually interpreted. So is TСL. Historically, the most important interpretive language has been LISP (a major improvement over of successors). Today, UNIX shells and the LISP that live inside Emacs editor are probably the most important pure interpreted languages.

 

P-code languages

Since 1990 a kind of hybrid language that uses both compilation and interpretation has become increasingly important. P-code languages are like compiled languages in that the source is translated to a compact binary form which is what you actually execute, but that form is not machine code. Instead it’s pseudocode (or p-code), which is usually a lot simpler but more powerful than a real machine language. When you run the program, you interpret the p-code.

P-code can run nearly as fast as a compiled binary (p-code interpreters can be made quite simple, small and speedy). But p-code languages can keep the flexibility and power of a good interpreter.

Important p-code languages include Python, Perl, and Java.

 

8.    Divide the text into parts and give the title to each of them in English.

 

Язык программирования – формальная знаковая система, предназначенная для записи программ. Программа обычно представляет собой некоторый алгоритм в форме, понятной для исполнителя (например, компьютера). Язык программирования определяет набор лексических, синтаксических и семантических правил, используемых при составлении компьютерной программы. Он позволяет программисту точно определить то, на какие события будет реагировать компьютер, как будут храниться и передаваться данные, а также какие именно действия следует выполнять над этими данными при различных обстоятельствах.

Со времени создания первых программируемых машин человечество придумало уже более восьми с половиной тысяч языков программирования. Каждый год их число пополняется новыми. Некоторыми языками умеет пользоваться только небольшое число их собственных разработчиков, другие становятся известны миллионам людей. Профессиональные программисты иногда применяют в своей работе более десятка разнообразных языков программирования.

Создатели языков по-разному толкуют понятие «язык программирования». К наиболее распространенным утверждениям, признаваемым большинством разработчиков, относятся следующие:

-                 Функция: язык программирования предназначен для написания компьютерных программ, которые применяются для передачи компьютеру инструкций по выполнению того или иного вычислительного процесса и организации управления отдельными устройствами.

-                 Задача: язык программирования отличается от естественных языков тем, что он предназначен для передачи команд и данных от человека компьютеру, в то время, как естественные языки используются для общения людей между собой. В принципе можно обобщить определение «языки программирования» - это способ передачи команд, приказов, четкого руководства к действию; тогда как человеческие языки служат также для обмена информацией.

-                 Исполнение: язык программирования может использовать специальные инструкции для определения и манипулирования структурами данных и управления процессом вычислений.

Языки программирования могут быть разделены на компилируемые и интерпретируемые.

Программа на компилируемом языке при помощи специальной программы компилятора преобразуется (компилируется) в набор инструкций для данного типа процессора (машинный код) и далее записывается в исполняемый файл, который может быть запущен на выполнение как отдельная программа. Другими словами, компилятор переводит программу с языка высокого уровня на низкоуровневый язык, понятный процессору.

Если программа написана на интерпретируемом языке, то интерпретатор непосредственно выполняет (интерпретирует) ее текст без предварительного перевода. При этом программа остается на исходном языке и не может быть запущена без интерпретатора. Можно сказать, что процессор компьютера – это интерпретатор машинного кода.

Кратко говоря, компилятор переводит программу на машинный язык сразу и целиком, создавая при этом отдельную программу, а интерпретатор переводит на машинный язык прямо во время исполнения программы.

Разделение на компилируемые и интерпретируемые языки является несколько условным. Так, для любого традиционно компилируемого языка, как например, Паскаль, можно написать интерпретатор. Кроме того, большинство современных «чистых» интерпретаторов не исполняют конструкции языка непосредственно, а компилируют их в некоторое высокоуровневое промежуточное представление.

Для любого интерпретируемого языка можно создать компилятор – например, язык ЛИСП, изначально интерпретируемый, может компилироваться без каких бы то ни было ограничений. Создаваемый во время исполнения программы код может так же динамически компилироваться во время исполнения.

Как правило, скомпилированные программы выполняются быстрее и не требуют для выполнения дополнительных программ, так как уже переведены на машинный язык. Вместе с тем при каждом изменении текста программы требуется ее перекомпиляция, что создает трудности при разработке. Кроме того, скомпилированная программа может выполняться только на том же типе компьютеров и, как правило, под той же операционной системой, на которую был рассчитан компилятор. Чтобы создать исполняемый файл для машины другого типа, требуется новая компиляция.

Интерпретируемые языки обладают некоторыми специфическими дополнительными возможностями, кроме того, программы на них можно запускать сразу же после изменения, что облегчает разработку. Программа на интерпретируемом языке может быть зачастую запущена на разных типах машин и операционных систем без дополнительных усилий. Однако интерпретируемые программы выполняются заметно медленнее, чем компилируемые, кроме того, они не могут выполняться без дополнительной программы – интерпретатора.

Некоторые языки, например, Java и C#, находятся между компилируемыми и интерпретируемыми языками, a именно: программа компилируется не в машинный язык, а в машинно-независимый код низкого уровня, байт-код. Далее байт-код выполняется виртуальной машиной. Для выполнения байт-кода обычно используется интерпретация, хотя отдельные его части для ускорения работы программы могут быть транслированы в машинный код непосредственно во время выполнения программы по технологии компиляции «на лету» (Just-in time compilation, JIT). Для Java байт-код исполняется виртуальной машиной Java (Java Virtual Machine, JVM), для C# - Common Language Runtime.

Подобный подход в некотором смысле позволяет использовать плюсы как интерпретаторов, так и компиляторов. Следует упомянуть также оригинальный язык Форт (Forth), который является как бы одновременно интерпретируемым и компилируемым.

 

9.              Reproduce the text in English emphasizing the new information not mentioned in the previous texts and points of difference in presentation the facts.

10.              Write down a summary of the text.

 

UNIT 2. Operating systems

 

Texts: Operating systems; Types of software; the operating system (OS); The Graphical User Interface; System utilities; How the Operating System Uses Memory; Operating System Functions.

 

1.    Read and translate the texts.

 

Operating Systems

An operating system is a collection of integrated computer programs that provide recurring services to other programs or to the user of a computer. These services consist of disk and file management, memory management, and device management. In other words, it manages CPU operations, input/output activities, storage resources, diverse support services, and controls various devices.

Operating system is the most important program for computer system. Without an operating system, every computer program would have to contain instructions telling the hardware each step the hardware should take to do its job, such as storing a file on a disk. Because the operating system contains these instructions, any program can call on the operating system when a service is needed.

 

Need to Study Operating System?

There are many different computer systems and several available operating systems. Thus, users must know what each operating system can do and cannot do to meet their 13necessity. Today, many operating systems are used for general use or sometimes for specific use. Then, which one is best for a specific purpose? The reason that users need to study operating system is here.

The predominant microcomputer operating system for IBM and IBM-compatibles so far was DOS (Disk Operating System). It has different versions including MS-DOS, PC-DOS and others. DOS is very popular and wide spread, but it has some limitations. Users need to learn DOS although it may fade out in a few years and has some weakness, because it will be used for the next several years. The other popular operating system was the Apple Macintosh operating system.

As more powerful microcomputers become commonplace, more advanced operating systems are needed. Microcomputer users are beginning to demand more powerful operating system that can run powerful microcomputers more efficiently. Today's very powerful microcomputers are demanding more complex and refined operating system that can do multiple functions. They also ask an easier user interface than old operating systems did. Now, there are more than six popular operating systems, leading to the lack of a standard. The other reason that operating system should be learned is here.

 

 

Types of software; the operating system (OS)

 - System software controls the basic functions of a computer, e.g. operating systems, programming software and utility programs.

 - Application software lets you do specific jobs such as writing letters, doing calculations, drawing or playing games. Examples are a word processor or a graphics package.

An operating system is a set of programs that control the hardware and allow people and applications to communicate with the hardware. Typical functions of the OS are handling input/output operations, running programs and organizing files on disks. The OS also gives access to networks and allows multitasking a user can run several programs (and do various tasks) at a time. Examples are:

-        the Windows familydesigned by Microsoft and used on most PCs;

-        Mac OScreated by Apple and used on Macintosh computers;

-                 Unix found on mainframes and workstations in corporate installations, as it supports multi-users;

-                 Linux developed under the GNU General public License; anyone can copy its source code, modify and redistribute it. It is used on PCs and appliances and small devices.

 

The Graphical User Interface

A GUI makes use of a WIMP environment: Windows, Icons, Menus and Pointer. This type of interface is user-friendly, where system functions are accessed by selecting self-explanatory icons (pictures representing programs or documents) and items from menus. A drop-down menu, or pull-down menu, is a list of operations that appear below a menu bar when you click on an item.

The pointer is an arrow, controlled by the mouse, which lets you choose options from menus.

The background screen that displays icons, representing programs, files and folders (directories) is called the desktop. Double clicking a folder icon opens a window which shows the programs, documents and other folders contained within the folder.

 

System utilities

There are small programs included with an OS that improve a system’s performance. They can be desk accessories, device drivers, or system extensions activated when you turn on the PC.

-        A crashed disk rescuer is used to restore disks and corrupted files.

-        An accessibility program makes a PC easier for disabled users to use.

-        A compression utility rewrites data so that it takes less space on disk.

-                 A media player lets you watch DVDs, play music and listen to the radio on the Web.

2.    Look through the texts and find the following:

1) the meaning of “multitasking”

2) the difference between system software and application software

3) software that enables users and programs to communicate with hardware

4) a multi-user OS used on large, powerful computer systems

5) the operating system that is freely distributed

6) the operating system designed by Apple

7) the OS created by Microsoft

8) the meaning used to describe a system that is easy to use.

 

3.    Which utility would you use to do these tasks?

1) to play and organize multimedia on your PC?

2) to diagnose and repair damaged disks

3) to help computer users with sight, hearing or mobility difficulties

4) to make file smaller, so you can send them with emails.

 

4.    Explain why Windows is so popular.

 

5.              Look at the Internet and find two operating systems designed for hand-held devices such as PDAs, palmtops and blackberries.

 

6.    Memorize the words:

bootstrapping – начальная загрузка

boot-up – загрузка

interrupt vector – вектор прерываний

DOS – disk operating system – дисковая операционная система

 

7.    Read the and translate the text:

How the Operating System Uses Memory

Here explains in case of DOS. When a personal computer is turned on, it searches specific locations on the disk drives for operating system files. If the PC finds the files, it loads the first of them into memory. A set of operating system files then takes over, loading the rest of the main files into memory in a specific order. Because the operating system is in a sense, loading itself or lifting itself by its own bootstraps, this operation is called the boot-up.

At the lowest part of memory, the operating system loads a table of interrupt vectors. When the operating system receives special codes called interrupts, it uses the table to detect where in memory it can find matching instructions. DOS also uses a small area just above the interruption table to hold the BIOS data called 'flags' that record the state of various system conditions. The same area also acts as a buffer to store keystrokes that come in faster than the system can process them.

A large expanse of memory just above the BIOS flags and keyboard buffer is used for device drivers, utility programs, and application programs. When DOS reads the CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT files, it looks for command lines to load drivers or memory-resident programs. Memory - resident programs are those that continue to be active even when application programs are running. When it finds such a command line, DOS normally puts the driver or program at the start of this large memory area. Device drivers usually remain loaded until the PC is turned off. Memory - resident programs can be unloaded if no other programs are loaded after them.

 

8.    Decode the abbreviations in the text, translate the text:

 

Operating System Functions

An operating system executes many functions to operate computer system efficiently. Among them, four essential functions are the followings.

-        Resource Management: An operating system manages a collection of computer hardware resources by using a variety of programs. It manages computer system resources, including its CPU, primary memory, virtual memory, secondary storage devices, input/output peripherals, and other devices.

-        Task Management: The function of the operating system that controls the running of many tasks. It manages one program or many programs within a computer system simultaneously. That is, this function of operating system manages the completion of users' tasks. A task management program in an operating system provides each task and interrupts the CPU operations to manage tasks efficiently. Task management may involve a multitasking capability.

-        File management: This is a function that manages data files. An operating system contains file management programs that provide the ability to create, delete, enter, change, ask, and access of files of data. They also produce reports on a file.

-        User Interface: It is a function of an operating system that allows users to interact with a computer. A user interface program may include a combination of menus, screen design, keyboard commands. A well-designed user interface is essential for an operating system to be popular. Because of the function, users can load programs, access files, and accomplish other tasks.

 

9.    Speak about operating system functions.

 

10.          Write a summary to the text in English.

 

11.          Memorize the words:

add-on – добавление, дополнение

enterprise application – прикладные системы предприятия

inaccurate – неточный

NeXT (near-end crosstalk) – перекрестные помехи на ближнем конце

dead-line – предельный срок

dedicated – выделенный, специальный, назначенный (например, программа или устройство, предназначенные для выполнения одной задачи или функции)

lawsuit – судебный процесс; иск; тяжба

unencumbered – необремененный, свободный от чего-л.

host – хост (общий термин, описывающий нечто, содержащее ресурс и предоставляющее к нему доступ. Часто используется как префикс, например, host computer)

 

12.          Read the text and determine the most distinctive features of each operating system:

 

Modern Operating Systems

          Microsoft Windows

          The Microsoft Windows family of operating systems originated as add-on to the older MS-DOS operating system for the IBM PC. Modern versions are based on the newer Windows NT kernel that was originally intended for OS/2 and borrowed from VMS. Windows runs on x86, x86-64 and Itanium processors. Earlier versions also ran on the DEC Alpha, MIPS, Fairchild (later Intergraph) Clipper and PowerPC architectures (some work was done to port it to the SPARC architecture).

          As of June 2008, Microsoft holds a large amount of the worldwide desktop market share. Windows is also used on servers, supporting applications such as web servers and database servers. In recent years, Microsoft has spent significant marketing and research & development money to demonstrate that Windows is capable of running any enterprise application, which has resulted in consistent price/performance records and significant acceptance in the enterprise market.

          The most popular version of the Microsoft Windows family is Windows XP, released on October 25, 2001.

In November 2006, after more than five years of development work, Microsoft released Windows Vista, a major new operating system version of Microsoft Windows family which contains a large number of new features and architectural changes. Chief amongst these are a new user interface and visual style called Windows Aero, a number of new security features such as User Account Control, and few new multimedia applications such as Windows DVD Maker.

 

          Plan 9

          Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie and Douglas McIlroy at Bell Labs designed and developed the C programming language to build the operating system UNIX. Programmers at bell Labs went on to develop Plan 9 and Inferno, which were engineered for modern distributed environments. Plan 9 was designed from the start to be a networked operating system, and had graphics built-in, unlike UNIX, which added these features to the design later. Plan 9 has yet to become as popular as UNIX derivatives, but it has an expanding community of developers. It is currently released under the Lucent Public License. Inferno was sold to Vita Nuova Holdings and has been released under a GPL/MIT license.

 

          UNIX and UNIX-Like Operating Systems

          Ken Thompson wrote B, mainly based on BCPL, which he used to write UNIX, based on his experience in the MULTICS project. B was replaced by C, and UNIX developed into a large, complex family of inter-related operating systems which have been influential in every modern operating system.

          The UNIX-like family is diverse group of operating systems, with several major sub-categories including System V, BSD, and Linux. The name “UNIX” is a trademark of The Open Group which licenses it for use with any operating system that has been shown to conform to their definitions. “UNIX-like” is commonly used to refer to the large set of operating systems which resemble the original UNIX.

          UNIX-like systems run on a wide variety of machine architectures. They are used heavily for servers in business, as well as workstations in academic and engineering environments. Free software UNIX variants, such as GNU, Linux and BSD, are popular in these areas. The market share for Linux is divided between many different distributions. Enterprise class distributions by Red Hat or Novell are used by corporations, but some home users may use those products. Historically home users typically installed a distribution themselves, but in 2007 Dell began to offer the Ubuntu Linux distribution on home PCs and now Walmart offers a low end computer with GOS v2. Linux on the desktop is also popular in the developer and hobbyist operating system development communities.

          Market share statistics for freely available operating systems are usually inaccurate since most free operating systems are not purchased, making usage under-represented. On the other hand, market share statistics based on total downloads of free operating systems are often inflated, as there is no economic distinctive to acquire multiple operating systems so users can download multiple systems, test them, and decide which they like best.

          Some UNIX variants like HP’s HP-UX and IBM’s AIX are designed to run only on that vendor’s hardware. Others, such as Solaris, can run on multiple types of hardware, including x86 servers and PCs. Apple’s Mac OS X, a hybrid kernel-based BSD variant derived from NeXTSTEP, Mach, and FreeBSD, has replaced Apple’s earlier (non-UNIX0 Mac OS.

          UNIX interoperability was sought by establishing the POSIX standard. The POSIX standard can be applied to any operating system, although it was originally created for various UNIX variants.

 

          Mac OS X

          Mac OS X is a line of proprietary, graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Apple Inc., the latest of which is pre-loaded on all currently shipping Macintosh computers. Mac OS X is the successor to the original Mac OS, which had been Apple’s primary operating system since 1984. Unlike its predecessor, Mac OS X is a UNIX operating system built on technology that had been developed at NeXT through the second half of the 1980s and up until Apple purchased the company in early 1997.

          The operating system was first released in 1999 as Mac OS X Server 1.0, with a desktop-oriented version (Mac OS X v10.0) following in March 2001. Since then, five more distinct “end-user” and “server” editions of Mac OS X v10/5, which was first made available in October 2007. Releases of Mac OS X are named after big cats; Mac OS X v10/5 is usually referred to by Apple and users as “Leopard”.

          The server edition, Mac OS X Server includes workgroup management and administration software tools that provide simplified access to key network services, including a mail transfer agent, a Samba server, an LDAP server, a domain name server, and others.

 

          Real-Time Operating systems

          A real-time operating system (RTOS) is a multitasking operating system intended for applications with fixed deadlines (real-time computing). Such applications include some small embedded systems, automobile engine controllers, industrial robots, spacecraft, industrial control, and some large-scale computing systems.

          An early example of a large-scale real-time operating system was Transaction Processing Facility developed by American Airlines and IBM for Sabre Airline Reservation System.

         

Embedded Systems

          Embedded systems use a variety of dedicated operating systems. In some cases, the “operating system” software is directly linked to the application to produce a monolithic special-purpose program. In the simplest embedded systems, there is no distinction between the OS and the application.

          Embedded systems that have fixed deadlines use a real-time operating system such as V x Works, eCos, QNX, and RTLinux.

          Some embedded systems use operating systems such as Palm OS, Windows CE, BSD, and Linux, although such operating systems do not support real-time computing.

          Windows CE shares similar APIs to desktop Windows but shares none of desktop Windows’ codebase.

 

          Shadow OS 2008 Mini

          Shadow OS 2008 Mini is an operating system released in 2008 by Unknownsoft Inc. specifically designed to run inside other operating systems, namely Windows and Mac. It is a non-graphical based operating system that runs like a command line interpreter, and processes commands much faster than graphical-based operating systems. Although it can open any file type without an external program, many people do not know how to use it, as it is a text-based OS. Unknownsoft Inc. released a new version shortly afterwards that could process service packs in KTU (short for Know The Unknown, Unknownsoft Inc.’s host website) file type. The corporation is currently developing Shadow OS 2009, an OS that will be a hybrid of text and graphics.

          Hobby development

          Operating system development or OSDev for short, as a hobby has a large cult-like following. As such, operating systems, such as Linux, have derived from hobby operating system projects. The design and implementation of an operating system requires skill and determination, and the term can cover anything from a basic “Hello World” boot loader to a fully featured kernel. One classical example of this is the Minix Operating System – an OS that was designed as a teaching tool but was heavily used by hobbyists before Linux eclipsed it in popularity.

 

          Other

          Older operating systems which ate still used in niche markets include OS/2 from IBM; Mac OS, the non-UNIX precursor to Apple’s Mac OS X; BeOS; XTS – 300. Some, most notably Amiga OS and RISC OS, continue to be developed as minority platforms for enthusiast communities and specialist applications. Open VMS formerly from DEC, is still under active development by Hewlett – Packard.

          Research and development of new operating systems continues GNU Hurd is designed to be backwards compatible with UNIX, but with enhanced functionality and microkernel architecture. Singularity is a project at Microsoft Research to develop an operating system with better memory protection based on the Net managed code model. Systems development follows the same model used by other Software development, which involves maintainers, version control “trees”, Fork (software development), “patches”, and specifications. From the AT&T – Berkeley lawsuit the new unencumbered systems were based on 4.4BSD which forked as FreeBSD and NetBSD efforts to replace missing code after the UNIX wars. Recent forks include DragonFlyBSD and Darwin from BSD UNIX.

 

UNIT 3. Networks

 

Texts: Networks, network topology; LANs; WANs; What the Internet is; Components of the Internet.

 

1.    Read and translate the texts:

 

Networks

LANs (Local Area Networks)

          Networking allows two or more computer systems to exchange information and share resources and peripherals.

          LANs are usually placed in the same building. They can be built with two main types of architecture: peer-to-peer, where the two computers have the same capabilities, or client-server, where one computer acts as the server containing the main hard disk and controlling the other workstations or nodes, all the devices linked in the network (e.g. printers, computers, etc.).

          Computers in a LAN need to use the same protocol, or standard of communication. Ethernet is one of the most common protocols for LANs.

          A router, a device that forwards data packets, is needed to link a LAN to another network, e.g. to the Net.

          Most networks are linked with cables or wires but new Wi-Fi, wireless fidelity, technologies allow the creation of WLANs, where cables or wires are replaced by radio waves.

           To build a WLAN you need access points, radio-based receiver-transmitters that are connected to the wired LAN, and wireless adapters installed in your computer to link it to the network.

          Hotspots are WLANs available for public use in places like airports and hotels, but sometimes the service is also available outdoors (e.g. university campuses, squares, etc.).

 

Network topology

          Topology refers to the shape of a network. There are three basic physical topologies:

-                 Star: there is a central device to which all the workstations are directly connected. This central position can be occupied by a server, or a hub, a connection point of the elements of a network that redistributes the data.

-                 Bus: every workstation is connected to a main cable called a bus.

-                 Ring: the workstations are connected to one another in a closed loop configuration.

There are also mixed topologies like the tree, a group of stars connected to a central bus.

 

WANs (Wide Area Networks)

WANs have no geographical limit and may connect computers or LANs on opposite sides of the world. They are usually linked through telephone lines, fiber-optic cables or satellites. The main transmission paths within a WAN are high-speed links called backbones.

 

Wireless WANs use mobile telephone networks.

The largest WAN in existence is the Internet.

 

2.    Look through the texts and correct the following statements.

1) In a client-server architecture, all the workstations have the same capabilities.

2) LANs link computers and other devices that are placed far apart.

3) The word protocol refers to the shape of the network.

4) Routers are used to link two computers.

5) Access points don’t need to be connected to a wired LAN.

6) Wireless adapters are optional when you using a WLAN.

7) Hotspots can only be found inside a building.

 

 

8) The Internet is an example of a LAN.

9) Wireless WANs use fiber and cable as linking devices.

 

3.    Use the words in the box to complete the sentences.

 

LAN                   nodes                             hub                                 backbones

WLAN               peer-to peer                    server

 

1) All the PCs on a ______________are connected to one ___________, which is a powerful PC with a large hard disk that can be shared by everyone.

2) The style of ___________networking permits each user to share resources such as printers.

3) The star is a topology for a computer network in which one computer occupies the central part and the remaining _________are linked solely to it.

4) At present Wi-Fi systems transmit data at much more than 100 times the rate of a dial-up modem, making it an ideal technology for linking computers to one another and to the Net in a __________.

5) All of the fiber-optic ____________of the United States, Canada and Latin America cross Panama.

6) A ____________ joins multiple computers (or other network devices) together to form a single network segment, where all computers can communicate directly with each other.

 

4.              Read these descriptions of different physical topologies of communication networks and match them with the terms in the text “Network topology”.

 

1) All the devices are connected to a central station.

2) In this type of network there is a cable to which all the computers and peripherals are connected.

3) Two or more star networks connected together; the central computers are connected to a main bus.

4) All devices (computers, printers, etc.) are connected to one another forming a continuous loop.

 

5.    Write a list of the advantages and disadvantages of using networks.

 

6.    Read and translate the text:

 

What the Internet is

          The Internet is an International Computer Network made up of thousands of networks linked together. All these computers communicate with one another; they share data, resources, transfer information, etc. to do it they need to use the same language or protocol: TCP / IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet protocol) and every computer is given an address or IP number. This number is a way to identify the computer on the Internet.

          To use the Internet you basically need a computer, the right connection software and a modem to connect your computer to a telephone line and then access your ISP (Internet Service Provider).

          The modem converts the digital signals stored in the computer into analogue signals that can be transmitted over telephone lines. There are two basic types: external with a cable that is plugged into the computer via a USB port, and internal, an expansion card inside the computer. A PC card modem is a different, more versatile option for laptops and mobile phones.

           At first most computers used a dial-up telephone connection that worked through the standard telephone line. Now a broadband connection, a high data transmission rate Internet connection, has become more popular: either ADSL (Asymmetric Digital subscriber Line), which allows you to use the same telephone line for voice and fast access to the Internet, or cable, offered by most TV cable providers.

           The basic equipment has changed drastically in the last few years. You no longer need a computer to use the Internet. Web TV provides email and access to the Web via a normal TV set plus a high-speed modem. More recently, 3Generation mobile phones and PDAs, personal digital assistants, also allow you to go online with wireless connections, without cables.

          Telephone lines are not essential either. Satellites orbiting the earth enable your computer to send and receive Internet files. Finally, the power-line Internet, still under development, provides access via a power plug.

 

Components of the Internet

           The Internet consists of many systems that offer different facilities to uses.

          WWW, the World Wide Web, a collection of files or pages containing links to other documents on the Net. It’s by far the most popular system. Most Internet services are now integrated on the Web.

          Email, or electronic mail, is for the exchange of messages and attached files.

          Mailing lists (or listservs) based on programs that send messages on a certain topic to all the computers whose users have subscribed to the list.

          Chat and instant messaging, for real-time conversations; you type your messages on the keyboard.

          Internet telephone, a system that lets people make voice calls via the Internet.

          Video conference, a system that allows the transmission of video and audio signals in real time; so the participants can exchange data, talk and see one another on the screen.

          File Transfer Protocol (FTP), used to transfer files between computers.

          Newsgroups, where people send, read and respond to public bulletin board messages stored on a central computer.

          TELNET is a program that enables a computer to function as a terminal working from a remote computer and so use online databases or library catalogues.

 

7.    Decide if these sentences are True or False. If they are false, correct them.

1) The Internet and the World Wide Web are synonyms.

2) Computers need to use the same protocol (TCP/IP) to communicate with each other.

3) Web TV can provide access to the Net.

4) ADSL and cable are two types of dial-up connections.

5) External, internal and PC card are types of connections.

6) Information can be sent through telephone lines, satellites and power lines.

7. The computer IP number is a way to identify it on the Internet.

 

8.    What Internet system should these people use?

1)    “I’d like to avoid flying to Japan to attend the meeting but I want to see what’s going on there.”

2)    “I like receiving daily updates and headlines from newspapers on my computer.”

3)    “I’m doing some research and need computer access to the University library.”

4)    I want to read people’s opinions about environmental issues and express my views.”

5)    “I have designed a web page and want to transfer the data to my reserved web space.”

6)    “I’d like to check my students’ draft essays on my computer and sent them back with my suggestions.”

7)    “I don’t want to spend too much money on international phone calls but I love hearing his voice.”

8)    “I live in a small village where there are no other teenagers. I wish I had the chance to meet and chat with friends”.

 

9.    Read the text, make up the plan. Write a summary to it in English.

 

Networks

You will often have the need to connect your computer to other computers in order to share information. This is typically done with a connection to a data network, or with a connection over a telephone line.

A Local Area Network (LAN) is used to connect computers spread over a relatively small area, such as a university campus, or several offices in a building, or a home. The computers on the network can share data, and they can also access printers connected to the network. All of the computers and printers on the network are called nodes of the network.

If your personal computer is connected to a network, it is called a network workstation (note that this is different form the usage of the term workstation as a high-end microcomputer). If your PC is not connected to a network, it is referred to as a standalone computer

In order to connect to a network, your computer will need a network adapter. This circuitry and port could be built into the motherboard or it could be on a network interface card (NIC) in one of the computer’s expansion slots. Your computer will also need the necessary networking software installed. Ethernet is the most common networking technology used.

If the computers connected to a network have equal status, it is called a peer-to-peer network. A typical home network might be done this way.

Larger LANs usually have one or more computers that act as file servers to provide data and software to the other computers on the network. The other workstations are referred as client computers, and this is a server/client network. You may also find terminals connected as nodes on a network (terminals have only a screen and a keyboard, and no processing power; they connect over the network to a computer that does the actual processing).

 

Telecommunication

Telecommunication refers to transmitting data over a long distance. For personal computers, this usually entails connecting to other computers over a telephone line or other connection.

A telephone line carries an analog signal, one that has a continuously varying waveform. This is different from the discrete digital signals that represent numbers in your computer. To communicate over a phone line, your computer needs a modem (which stands for modulator-demodulator). The modem takes the digital information from your computer and modulates it onto an analog wave in the range of sound frequencies that can be carried over phone lines. The modem also takes analog signals from the phone line and demodulates them to extract the digital information, which it passes to your computer. The computer on the other end of the phone line is also equipped with a modem.

Computer modems typically communicate at 56K (56 kilobits per second), but if your phone connection is not good the modems will shift to a slower speed at which a reliable exchange of data can take place. A telecommunications connection via a phone modem is called a dial-up connection.

Many modems can also function as fax machines. You can “print” a document as a fax image to send to a distant fax machine.

 

 

Broadband

Many users found 56K telephone modem connections too slow (especially with increased popularity of the Internet). Broadband connections allow faster transfer of information. The most popular kinds are DSL, cable, and satellite.

A DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) connection works over your telephone line and requires a special DSL modem. Unlike a regular modem, the DSL modem signal is carried at higher frequencies, beyond those of sound. It has a wider bandwidth since it is not limited to the audio band, and it has the advantage that you can use the telephone line simultaneously for voice and DSL communications. DSL requires special equipment installed at the phone company end, and you must not be located too far from the phone company’s junction.

A cable connection (requiring a special cable modem) uses your cable television line to transmit and receive data. Similarly, a link to satellite TV broadcast satellites can be used to provide broadband access to areas DSL or cable TV can't service.

The Internet

One of the primary reasons for getting a network or telecommunications connection for your computer is to access the Internet. The Internet is a wide area network (WAN) that spans the globe and uses the TCP/IP protocol to transmit information. To access the Internet, you need a dial-up or broadband connection through an Internet Service Provider (ISP), or access to a network that has a gateway connection to the Internet.

Many information resources and services are available via the Internet; the two most popular are electronic mail (e-mail) and the World Wide Web (the Web). Both of these services use a client/server model: there are servers on the Internet that handle e-mail traffic or offer web pages. To access these, you need to run appropriate client software on your computer. Popular e-mail clients include Thunderbird, Apple's Mail program, and Outlook Express. World Wide Web client programs are called web browsers, and popular examples are Internet Explorer, Chrome, Netscape, Opera, Firefox, and Safari.

Electronic mail entails sending and receiving private messages between users connected to the Internet. (This is different from public posting of messages on electronic forums such as Usenet Newsgroups or web forums.) Your messages are held for you on an e-mail server until you access them using you e-mail client software.

The World Wide Web is free-format a collection of data archives called web pages that include text, graphics, animation, sound, and video. Web pages are linked together using hypertext links (hyperlinks); simply clicking on a link displays another web page. All manner of information is available on the Web from individuals, businesses, universities, government bureaus, etc.

 

 

10.          Reproduce the text in English emphasizing the information not mentioned in the previous English texts.

 

Компьютерная сеть (вычислительная сеть, сеть передачи данных) – система связи между двумя или более компьютерами и/или компьютерным оборудованием (серверы, принтеры, факсы, маршрутизаторы и другое оборудование). Для передачи информации могут быть использованы различные физические явления, как правило, различные виды электрических сигналов или электромагнитного излучения (electromagnetic radiation).

Существует множество способов классификации сетей. Основным критерием классификации принято считать способ администрирования, то есть в зависимости от того, как организована сеть и как она управляется, ее можно отнести к локальной, городской или глобальной сети. Управляет сетью или ее сегментом сетевой администратор. В случае сложных сетей их права и обязанности строго распределены, ведутся документация и журналирование действий команды администраторов.

Компьютеры могут соединяться между собой, используя различные среды доступа: медные проводники (витая пара), оптические проводники (оптоволоконные кабели) и через радиоканал (беспроводные технологии). Проводные связи устанавливаются через Ethernet, беспроводные - через Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, GPRS и прочие средства. Отдельная локальная вычислительная сеть может иметь шлюзы с другими локальными сетями, а также быть частью глобальной вычислительной сети (например, Интернет) или иметь подключение к ней.

Чаще всего локальные сети построены на технологиях Ethernet или Wi-Fi. Следует отметить, что ранее использовались протоколы Frame Relay, TokenRing, которые на сегодняшний день встречаются все реже, их можно увидеть лишь в специализированных лабораториях, учебных заведениях и службах. Для построения простой локальной сети используются маршрутизаторы, коммутаторы, точки беспроводного доступа, беспроводные маршрутизаторы, модемы и сетевые адаптеры. Реже используются преобразователи (конверторы) среды, усилители сигнала (повторители разного рода) и специальные антенны.

Маршрутизация в локальных сетях используется примитивная, если она вообще необходима. Чаще всего это статическая либо динамическая маршрутизация (основанная на протоколе RIP).

Иногда в локальной сети организуются рабочие группы – формальное объединение нескольких компьютеров в группу с единым названием.

Сетевой администратор – человек, ответственный за работу локальной сети или ее части. В его обязанности входят обеспечение и контроль физической связи, настройка активного оборудования, настройка общего доступа и предопределенного круга программ, обеспечивающих стабильную работу сети.

Персональная сетьэто сеть, построенная «вокруг» человека. Данные сети призваны объединять все персональные электронные устройства пользователя (телефоны, карманные персональные компьютеры, смартфоны, ноутбуки, гарнитуры и т.п.). К стандартам таких сетей в настоящее время относят Bluetooth.

Локальная вычислительная сеть, ЛВС, - компьютерная сеть, покрывающая обычно относительно небольшую территорию или небольшую группу зданий (дом, офис, фирму, институт). Также существуют локальные сети, узлы которых разнесены географически на расстояние более 14 000 км (космические станции и орбитальные центры). Несмотря на такое расстояние, подобные сети относят к локальным.

Городская вычислительная сеть (MAN) объединяет компьютеры в пределах города. Самым простым примером городской сети является система кабельного телевидения. Она стала правопреемником обычных антенных сетей в тех местах, где по тем или иным причинам качество эфира было слишком низким. Общая антенна в этих системах устанавливалась на вершине какого-нибудь холма, и сигнал передавался в дома абонентов.

Когда Интернет стал привлекать к себе массовую аудиторию, операторы кабельного телевидения поняли, что, внеся небольшие изменения в систему, можно сделать так, чтобы по тем же каналам в неиспользуемой части спектра передавались (причем в обе стороны) цифровые данные. С этого момента кабельное телевидение стало постепенно превращаться в MAN.

MAN – это не только кабельное телевидение. Недавние разработки, связанные с высокоскоростным беспроводным доступом в Интернет, привели к созданию других MAN, которые описаны в стандарте IEEE 802.16, который описывает широкополосные беспроводные ЛВС.

Глобальная вычислительная сеть, ГВС, представляет собой компьютерную сеть, охватывающую большие территории и включающую в себя десятки и сотни тысяч компьютеров.

ГВС служат для объединения разрозненных (scattered; uncoordinated) сетей, чтобы пользователи и компьютеры, где бы они ни находились, могли взаимодействовать со всеми остальными участниками глобальной сети. Лучшим примером ГВС является Интернет, но существуют и другие сети, например, FidoNet.

Некоторые ГВС построены исключительно для частных организаций, другие являются средством коммуникации корпоративных ЛВС с сетью Интернет или посредством Интернет с удаленными сетями, входящими в состав корпоративных. Чаще всего ГВС опирается на выделенные линии, на одном конце которых маршрутизатор подключается к ЛВС, а на другом – концентратор связывается с остальными частями ГВС. Основными используемыми протоколами являются TCP/IP, SONET/SDH, MPLS, ATM и Frame relay. Ранее был широко распространен протокол Х.25, который может по праву считаться прародителем Frame relay.

 

UNIT 4. Artificial Intelligence

 

1.    Memorize the words:

sensory perception – чувственное (сенсорное) восприятие

behavior – поведение

to argue – спорить; аргументировать; обсуждать

to gauge – измерять; оценивать; градуировать

to deceive – обманывать; вводить в заблуждение

quest (for) – поиски

to affect –(воз)действовать; влиять; касаться

stumbling block – камень преткновения

insight – проницательность; понимание

to bring about – вызывать; способствовать

to deserve - заслуживать

 

2.    Read and translate the text:

 

An Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence, or AI for short, is a combination of computer science, physiology, and philosophy. AI is a broad topic, consisting of different fields, from machine vision to expert systems. The element that the fields of AI have in common is the creation of machines that can "think".

In order to classify machines as "thinking", it is necessary to define intelligence. To what degree does intelligence consist of, for example, solving complex problems, or making generalizations and relationships? And what about perception and comprehension? Research into the areas of learning, of language, and of sensory perception has aided scientists in building intelligent machines. One of the most challenging approaches facing experts is building systems that mimic the behavior of the human brain, made up of billions of neurons, and arguably the most complex matter in the universe. Perhaps the best way to gauge the intelligence of a machine is British computer scientist Alan Turing’s test. He stated that a computer would deserve to be called intelligent if it could deceive a human into believing that it was human.

Artificial Intelligence has come a long way from its early roots, driven by dedicated researchers. The beginnings of AI reach back before electronics, to philosophers and mathematicians such as Boole and others theorizing on principles that were used as the foundation of AI Logic. AI really began to intrigue researchers with the invention of the computer in 1943. The technology was finally available, or so it seemed, to simulate intelligent behavior. Over the next four decades, despite many stumbling blocks, AI has grown from a dozen researchers, to thousands of engineers and specialists; and from programs capable of playing checkers, to systems designed to diagnose disease.

AI has always been on the pioneering end of computer science. Advanced-level computer languages, as well as computer interfaces and word-processors owe their existence to the research into artificial intelligence. The theory and insights brought about by AI research will set the trend in the future of computing. The products available today are only bits and pieces of what are soon to follow, but they are a movement towards the future of artificial intelligence. The advancements in the quest for artificial intelligence have, and will continue to affect our jobs, our education, and our lives.

 

3.    Make up a plan of the text. Retell it using your plan.

 

4.    Translate the texts without of dictionary.

 

Robots, androids, AI

          A robot is a computer-programmed machine that performs actions, manipulates objects, etc. in a precise and, in many cases, repetitive way.

          Robots may by automata, or man-like machines, whose basic components are similar to a human body.

-                 They have mechanical links, joints, which connect their movable parts.

-                 Their heart and muscles are the electric or pneumatic motors or systems, the actuators, which create the movement.

-                 Robots also have hands, usually tools or grippers, called end effectors.

-                 They may be equipped with cameras or infrared controls, sensors, which transmit information to the central system in order to locate objects or adjust movements.

-                 Finally, robots depend on a computer system, the brain that directs the actions.

 

5.    Complete the article with words from exercise 4.

 

Action robot to copy human brain

          Scientists at Aberystwyth University are working on a machine which they hope will recognize objects with cameras that will work as (1)______________, and retrieve objects with an arm that will be its (2)_________                 __________.

          Although the arm will have (3)_____________that will link its muscles and an electric motor that will be the (4)______________, this new (5)___________ won’t move like a human, i.e. it won’t be like the (6)__________- of science-fiction films: forget star Wars’ C3PO. It will be desk based: no walking, or climbing stairs.

          The team hopes to discover how the brain performs ‘multi-tasking’ and to use that information to develop the (7)__________     __________ to create a robot that can think for itself.

Uses for robots

          The word robot comes from robota, meaning compulsory labor in Czech; similarly, robots are helpful in activities which are too dangerous, too boring or too precise for human beings.

-        Robots in industry

          Robotic arms, telescopic or bending arms, are widely used in the automobile industry to paint, weld and assemble car parts. Robots are also used in electronic assembly or microchips where precision of movements is essential.

-        Robots in space

          Planetary rovers, remotely-operated vehicles, and space probes, unpiloted spaceships, are used to explore space.

-        Robots and health

Surgical robots, which help human surgeons, are programmed to assist in very delicate microsurgery operations or mimic the surgeons’ movements in telesurgery operations.

-        Robots and safety

Mobile robots, vehicles controlled by human operators, are used for defusing bombs and handling hazardous materials.

 

Artificial Intelligence

          Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the science that tries to recreate the human thought process and build machines that perform tasks that normally require human intelligence. T has several applications.

          Androids are anthropomorphic robots designed to look and behave like a human being. Most androids can walk, talk and understand human speech. Some react to gestures and voice inflection. Some ‘learn’ from the environment^ they store information and adapt their behavior according to a previous experience.

          “Expert systems” is the term given to computer software that mimics human reasoning, by using a set of rules to analyze data and reach conclusions. Some expert systems help doctors diagnose illnesses based on symptoms.

          Neural networks are a new concept in computer programming, designed to replicate the human ability to handle ambiguity by learning from trial and error. They use silicon neurons to imitate the functions of brain cells and usually involve a great number of professors working at the same time.

 

6.    Complete the extracts with words from the previous text.

a)              The term (1)___________        __________is designed as the automation of intelligent behavior, but can (2)____________ really be intelligent?

b)             (3)_____________         ____________ are made of units that resemble neurons. They are often used to simulate brain activity and are effective at predicting events.

c)              (4)______________       _____________, also known as knowledge-based systems, mirror the structure of an expert’s thought.

 

7.    Make a list of other uses of robots at home and at work.

 

8.    Translate the text and write a summary to it.

 

Applications of AI

Here are some applications of AI:

 

-        game playing

You can buy machines that can play master level chess for a few hundred dollars. There is some AI in them, but they play well against people mainly through brute force computation--looking at hundreds of thousands of positions. To beat a world champion by brute force and known reliable heuristics requires being able to look at 200 million positions per second.

 

 

 

-        speech recognition

In the 1990s, computer speech recognition reached a practical level for limited purposes. Thus United Airlines has replaced its keyboard tree for flight information by a system using speech recognition of flight numbers and city names. It is quite convenient. On the other hand, while it is possible to instruct some computers using speech, most users have gone back to the keyboard and the mouse as still more convenient.

 

-        understanding natural language

Just getting a sequence of words into a computer is not enough. Parsing sentences is not enough either. The computer has to be provided with an understanding of the domain the text is about, and this is presently possible only for very limited domains.

 

-        computer vision

The world is composed of three-dimensional objects, but the inputs to the human eye and computers' TV cameras are two dimensional. Some useful programs can work solely in two dimensions, but full computer vision requires partial three-dimensional information that is not just a set of two-dimensional views. At present there are only limited ways of representing three-dimensional information directly, and they are not as good as what humans evidently use.

 

-        expert systems

A “knowledge engineer” interviews experts in a certain domain and tries to embody their knowledge in a computer program for carrying out some task. How well this works depends on whether the intellectual mechanisms required for the task are within the present state of AI. When this turned out not to be so, there were many disappointing results. One of the first expert systems was MYCIN in 1974, which diagnosed bacterial infections of the blood and suggested treatments. It did better than medical students or practicing doctors, provided its limitations were observed. Namely, its ontology included bacteria, symptoms, and treatments and did not include patients, doctors, hospitals, death, recovery, and events occurring in time. Its interactions depended on a single patient being considered. Since the experts consulted by the knowledge engineers knew about patients, doctors, death, recovery, etc., it is clear that the knowledge engineers forced what the experts told them into a predetermined framework. In the present state of AI, this has to be true. The usefulness of current expert systems depends on their users having common sense.

 

-        heuristic classification

One of the most feasible kinds of expert system given the present knowledge of AI is to put some information in one of a fixed set of categories using several sources of information. An example is advising whether to accept a proposed credit card purchase. Information is available about the owner of the credit card, his record of payment and also about the item he is buying and about the establishment from which he is buying it (e.g., about whether there have been previous credit card frauds at this establishment).

 

9.              Read the text, condense the information in each paragraph, then make up a plan.

Artificial intelligence

Artificial intelligence (AI) is the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science that aims to create it. AI textbooks define the field as "the study and design of intelligent agents" where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chances of success. John McCarthy, who coined the term in 1956, defines it as "the science and engineering of making intelligent machines."

The field was founded on the claim that a central property of humans, intelligence—the sapienсe of Homo sapiens—can be so precisely described that it can be simulated by a machine. This raises philosophical issues about the nature of the mind and the ethics of creating artificial beings, issues which have been addressed by myth, fiction and philosophy since antiquity. Artificial intelligence has been the subject of optimism, but has also suffered setbacks and, today, has become an essential part of the technology industry, providing the heavy lifting for many of the most difficult problems in computer science.

AI research is highly technical and specialized, deeply divided into subfields that often fail in the task of communicating with each other. Subfields have grown up around particular institutions, the work of individual researchers, the solution of specific problems, longstanding differences of opinion about how AI should be done and the application of widely differing tools. The central problems of AI include such traits as reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning, communication, perception and the ability to move and manipulate objects. General intelligence (or "strong AI") is still among the field's long term goals.

References

1.  Santiago Remacha Esteras, Elena Marco Fabre “Professional English in use” ICT for Computers and the Internet, Cambridge University PRESS, Intermediate to advanced.

2.    C.B.Бобылева, Д.Н.Жаткин, Английский язык для сферы информационных технологий и сервиса, Учебное пособие. - Ростов-на-Дону, Феникс, 2009. - 332 с.

3.  Chris Leadbetter, Stewart Wainwright and Alan Stinchcombe Cambridge IGCSE, Computer Studies, Coursebook.

 

Contents

 

Unit 1. Programming                                                                                      3

Unit 2. Operating systems                                                                             15

Unit 3. Networks                                                                                          22

Unit 4. Artificial Intelligence                                                                         31

References                                                                                                            36

 

 

Сводный план 2013 г., поз. 227

Светлана Борисовна Бухина

АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК
Методические указания для формирования навыков перевода текстов
(для специальности 5В060200)

 

Редактор А.Т. Сластихина
Специалист по стандартизации Н.К. Молдабекова

 

Подписано в печать__________
Формат 60х84 1/16
Тираж 50 экз.
Бумага типографская №1
Объем _2.3_уч. – изд. л.
Заказ______.Цена 230т.

Копировально-множительное бюро
Некоммерческого акционерного общества
«Алматинский университет энергетики и связи»
050013, Алматы, Байтурсынова, 126