Некоммерческое акционерное общество
АЛМАТИНСКИЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ ЭНЕРГЕТИКИ И СВЯЗИ
Кафедра иностранных языков

АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК
Методические указания по развитию навыков чтения и перевода
научно-технических текстов
для студентов специальности 5В071700 - Теплоэнергетика

Алматы 2014

Составитель: У.Б.Серикбаева. Английский язык. Методические указания по развитию навыков чтения и перевода научно-технических текстов для студентов специальности 5В071700 – Теплоэнергетика. – Алматы. АУЭС, 2014 -30 с.

Данные методические указания предназначены для применения на практических занятиях для студентов первого курса для развития навыков чтения и перевода текстов. Тексты взяты из оригинальной литературы. В каждом разделе имеются упражнения для закрепления лексики.

Рецензент: канд. тех. наук., доцент Козлов В.С..

Печатается по плану издания некоммерческого акционерного общества «Алматинский университет энергетики и связи» на 2014 г

Unit 1

Grammar:

Видовременные формы глагола: а) активный залог – формы Simple Present, Past, Future; формы Continuous Present, Past, Future, формы Perfect Present, Past, Future, b) пассивный залог – формы Simple Present, Past, Future.

Образец выполнения:

а) Lobachevski’s geometry had revolutionized mathematics and the philosophy of science – Геометрия Лобачевского произвела коренное изменение в математике и философии науки.

1.Читать и перевести текст.

Steam turbine

A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam, and converts it into useful mechanical work. It has almost completely replaced the reciprocating piston steam engine which was invented by Tomas Newcomen and greatly improved by James Watt. The reason of it was in its greater thermal efficiency. Also, because the turbine generates rotary motion, it is particularly suited to be used to drive an electric generator; about 86% of all electric generation in the world is by use of steam turbines.

The first steam engine was little more that a toy made by Heron of Alexandria. Another steam device was created by Italian Giovanni Branca in 1629. The modern steam turbine was invented in 1884 by English engineer, Charles A. Parsons, whose first model was connected to a dynamo that generated 7.5 kW of electricity. His patent was licensed and the turbine and the turbine scaled up shortly after by an American, George Westinghouse. A number of other variations of turbines have been developed that worked effectively with steam. The de Laval turbine invented by Gustaf de Laval accelerated the steam to full speed before running it against a turbine blade. This was good, because the turbine is simpler, less expensive and does not need to be pressure-proof. It can operate with any pressure of steam. It is also, however, considerably less efficient. The Parson’s turbine also turned out to be relatively easy to scale up. Within Parson’s lifetime the generating capacity of a unit was scaled up by about 10,000 times.

Steam turbine are made in variety of sizes ranging from small 1 hp (0.75 kW) units used as mechanical drives for pumps, compressors and other shaft driven equipment, to 2,000,000 hp (1,500,000 kW) turbines used to generate electricity. There are several classifications for modern steam turbines. These types include condensing, noncondensing, reheat, extraction, and induction.

Noncondensing or backpressure turbines are most widely used for process steam application. The exhaust pressure is controlled by a regulating valve to suit the needs of the process steam pressure.

Condensing turbines are most commonly found in electrical power plants. These turbines exhaust steam in a partially condensed state.

Reheat turbines are used almost exclusively in electrical power plants. In a reheat turbine, steam flow exits from a high pressure section of the turbine and is returned to the boiler where additional superheat is added. The steam then goes back into an intermediate pressure section of the turbine and continuous its expansion.

Extracting type turbines are common in all applications. In an extracting type turbine, steam is released from various stage of the turbine, and used for industrial process needs or sent to boiler feed water heaters to improve overall cycle efficiency. Extraction flows may be controlled with a valve, or left uncontrolled.

Induction turbines introduce low pressure steam at an intermediate stage to produce additional power.

Problems with turbines are now rare and maintenance requirements are relatively small. Any imbalance of the rotor can lead to vibration, which in extreme cases can lead to a blade letting go and punching strait through the casing. It is, however, essential that the turbine be turned with dry steam. If water gets into the steam and is blasted on to the blades, rapid impingement and erosion of the blades can occur, possibly leading to imbalance and catastrophic failure. Also, water entering the blades will likely result in the destruction of the thrust bearing for the turbine shaft. To prevent this, along with controls and baffles in the boilers to ensure high quality steam, condensate drains are installed in the steam piping leading to the turbine.

Electrical power stations use large steam turbines driving electric generators to produce most (about 86%) of the world’s electricity. These centralized stations are of two types: fossil fuel power plants and nuclear power plants. The turbines used for electric power generation are most often directly coupled to their generators. As the generators must rotate at constant synchronous speeds according to the frequency of the electric power system, the most common speeds are 3000 r/min for 50 Hz systems, and 3600 r/ min for 60 Hz systems. Most large nuclear sets rotate at half those speeds, and have a 4-pole generator rather than the more common 2-pole one.

Another use of steam turbines is in ships; their small size, low maintenance, light weight, and low vibration are compelling advantages. (Steam turbine locomotives were also tested, but with limited success.) A steam turbine is efficient only when operating in the thousand of RPM range while application of the power in propulsion applications may be only in the hundreds of RPM and so requiring that expensive and precise reduction gears must be used, although several ships, such as Turbinia, had direct drive from the steam turbine to the propeller shafts. This purchase cost is offset by much lower fuel and maintenance requirements and the small size of a turbine when compared to a reciprocating engine having an equivalent power. Most modern vessels now use either gas turbines or diesel engine, however, nuclear powered vessels such as some aircraft carries and nuclear submarines still use steam turbines as part of their propulsion systems.

Almost all electrical power on Earth is produced with a turbine of some type. Very high thermal efficiencies (Power Production Efficiency = [Electrical energy Output / Thermal Energy Input]) are achievable in gas turbine power generation facilities (60% or greater when using combined cycles). Most jet engines (excluding scramjet and ramjet engines) rely on turbines o supply mechanical work from their working fluid and fuel as do all nuclear warships and power plants. Turbines are often part of a large machine. A Gas turbine, for example, may refer to an internal combustion machine that contains a turbine, ducts, compressor, combustor, heat-exchanger, fan and (in the case of one designed to produce electricity) an alternator. Reciprocating piston engines such as aircraft engines can use a turbine powered by their exhaust to drive an intake- air compressor, a configuration known as a turbocharger (turbine supercharger) or, colloquially, a “turbo”. Turbines can have incredible power density ( with respect to volume and weight.) this is because of their ability to operate at very high speeds. The Space Shuttle’s main engine use turbo pumps (machine consisting of a pump driven by a turbine engine) to feed the propellants (liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen) into the engine’s combustion chamber. The liquid hydrogen turbo pumps are slightly larger than an automobile engine. Turbo expanders are widely used as sources of refrigeration in industrial processes.

2. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните в каждом из них глагол-сказуемое и определите его видовременную форму и залог. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. Chemical science is successfully solving many complex problems.

2. Radio astronomy has given mankind efficient means for penetration into space.

3. Becquerel’s discovery was followed by an intensive research work of Marie and Curie.

4. Heat energy is transmitted in two different ways.

3. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните Participle 1 и Participle 2; укажите, является ли оно определением, обстоятельством или частью глагола-сказуемого. Переведите на русский язык.

1. Nylon was the first synthetic fiber used in clothing.

2. The atoms forming our planet are built of negative electrons, positive

protons and ordinary neutrons.

3. This kind of treatment when used makes the metals heat – resistant.

4. When passing through an electroscope, X-rays cause its discharge.

4. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните в каждом из них модальный глагол или его эквивалент. Переведите на русский язык.

1. One object may be larger than another one, but it may weigh less.

2. Mass can also be defined as a measure of inertia.

3. Man-made satellites had to use solar cells as a source of power.

4. Plastics should be reinforced by different kinds of fibers.

Unit 2

Grammar:

Особенности перевода пассивных конструкций на русский язык.

Модальные глаголы: а) модальные глаголы, выражающие возможность; can (could), may и эквивалент глагола can-to be able; б) модальные глаголы, выражающие долженствование; must и его эквиваленты to have to ,to be to , should.

Образец выполнения:

1. The new laboratory equipment was sent for yesterday. – Вчера послали за новым оборудованием лаборатории.

Was sent for – Past Ind. Passive.

2. When heated to the boiling point water evaporates. - Когда воду нагревают до точки кипения, она испаряется. Или: При нагревании до точки кипения вода испаряется.

When heated – Participle 2 – обстоятельство.

1. Переведите текст.

Nuclear waste and the distant future

Regulation of nuclear hazards must be consistent with rules governing other hazardous materials and must balance its risks against those linked to other energy sources. Although most of the radioactive material generated by nuclear energy decays away over short times ranging from minutes to several decades, a small fraction remains radioactive for far longer time periods. Polio/makers, responding to public concern about the potential long-term hazards of these materials, have established unique requirements for managing nuclear materials risks that differ greatly from those for chemical hazards. Although it is difficult to argue against any effort to protect public safety, risk management will be most effective when each risk is evaluated in the context of other risks and balanced against the benefits produced by the regulated activity. Applying extremely stringent standards to one type of risk while other risks are regulated at a lower standard does not improve overall public safety. Similarly, foregoing a socially and economically valuable activity in order to limit relatively small future risk is not a sensible tradeoff. Therefore, developing an effective risk policy for nuclear power and radioactive waste requires looking at how the government regulates all hazardous waste and at the relative health and environmental effects of nuclear power as compared with those of other energy sources.

A key regulatory decision for the future of nuclear power is the safety standard to be applied in the licensing of the radioactive waste depository at Yucca Mountain (YM), Nevada. In 1992, Congress passed the Energy Policy Act, directing the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to promulgate site-specific standards for the YM nuclear waste repository project. Furthermore, Congress stipulated that these standards be consistent with the findings and recommendations of the 1995 National Research Council report Technical Bases for Yucca Mountain Standards (commonly called the "TYMS report").

The standard that the EPA subsequently established was generally consistent with the TYMS report but differed significantly with respect to the compliance period. The EPA ruled that during its first 10,000 years, the YM repository must ensure that no individual in the adjoining Armagosa Valley would be exposed to more than 15 millirems (mrem) of radiation per year from use of the groundwater. The EPA chose the 10,000-year compliance period because that is the period already being applied to the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant repository in New Mexico and is the longest compliance period for any hazardous waste. However, the TYMS report concluded that there is "no scientific basis for limiting the time period of the individual risk standard to 10,000 years or any other value" and recommended that assessment be performed out to the time of peak risk to a maximally exposed individual, which may be several hundred thousand years in the future. Opponents of the YM project challenged the EPA rules in court. On July 9, 2004, the U.S. Court of Appeals issued a ruling that denied all challenges, except one. The successful challenge, brought by the State of Nevada, argued that the EPA was not in compliance with the Energy Policy Act, because it had deviated from recommendations of the TYMS report by limiting the regulatory compliance time to 10,000 years. Thirteen months later, EPA issued a revised "two-tiered" standard under which maximum exposure beyond 10,000 years will be limited to 350 mrem per year, which is roughly equivalent to the average background exposure for individuals across the globe. No detectable health damage has been associated with this level of exposure.

It should also be noted that in making its recommendation that standards be set for the period beyond 10,000 years, the TYMS report included two important caveats: that the EPA should consider establishing "consistent policies for managing risks from disposal of both long-lived hazardous non-radioactive materials and radioactive materials" and that the ethical principle of intergenerational equity should be considered in the formulation of safety standards.

Here we consider three central questions for the YM standard: What risk does YM pose beyond 10,000 years, how are other long-term risks regulated, and how might such long-term standards affect nearer-term human welfare? We find that the proposed EPA standard for YM does satisfy appropriate long-term safety criteria, and indeed the standard is much more stringent than EPA standards governing other sources of long-term risk. In addition, a risk/benefit analysis of nuclear power indicates that it is a safer choice than the fossil options that now dominate electricity generation.

Nuclear fission extracts large quantities of energy from extremely small masses of fuel. The small quantity of fuel used, as compared to fossil energy alternatives, makes it possible to manage nuclear wastes by isolation as a concentrated, contained solid rather than by release and dilution into the environment as is done with fossil fuels. The vast majority of radioactivity created in nuclear fuels disappears rapidly after reactors shut down, as short-lived radioactive elements (so-called fission products) decay to become stable elements over periods of hours to days. A modest fraction of radioactivity comes from fission products that remain radioactive for decades, and a very small fraction from radioactive isotopes primarily heavy elements such as plutonium created by neutron capture, as well as some of their radioactive decay products that persist for tens to hundreds of millennia.

Nuclear reactor safety focuses on providing multiple containment barriers and reliable cooling to allow for the safe radioactive decay of short-lived fission products after reactor shutdown. Interim storage of spent fuel in surface facilities can then permit further substantial reductions in heat generation from the smaller quantities of fission products that take multiple decades to decay. The remaining inventory of very long-lived isotopes could be further reduced by factors of 40 to 100 by reprocessing spent fuel and recycling it in advanced "burner" reactors. With or without reprocessing, there remains a quantity of residual long-lived radioactive materials that must be stored and isolated from the environment.

A general scientific and technical consensus exists that deep geologic disposal can provide predictable and effective long-term isolation of nuclear wastes. Environments deep underground change extremely slowly with time, particularly when compared to the surface environment, and therefore their past behavior can be studied and extrapolated into the long-term future. The largest challenge for safety assessment for deep geologic isolation comes from predicting how the perturbation created by emplacing nuclear waste will change long-term chemical and hydrogeologic conditions in particular the effect on surrounding rock of the heat generated by the waste over multiple centuries.

In the United States, a protracted and divisive political and technical process resulted in the selection, in 2002, of a national repository site at YM, sitting astride a federally owned area that overlaps the Nevada Test Site, Nellis Air Force Base, and Bureau of Land Management lands in southern Nevada. After a delay to revise its original license application, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has recently announced that it will submit a construction license application for YM to the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) in 2008. Under current law, the NRC will have three years to evaluate this application, with a potential one-year extension, to determine whether the DOE repository design meets a safety standard established by the EPA.

Detailed technical review of YM performance will occur during licensing. In the interim, the 1999 Final Environmental Impact Statement (FEIS) provides a preliminary indication of potential long-term performance, assuming the disposal of 63,000 metric tons (MT) of spent fuel and 7,000 MT of defense waste. The peak risk occurs in about 60,000 years, when the waste canisters may become degraded, potentially allowing the radioactive material to be transported down to groundwater and subsequently to the Amargosa Valley. If one considers a worst-case scenario in which future Amargosa Valley residents possess technology for irrigated agriculture but do not employ any basic public health measures to test water quality for natural and human-generated contaminants and do not use the simple mitigative actions that our current public health practice employs, the maximum doses predicted by the FEIS would be of the same order as average natural background radiation, which generates no statistically detectable health effects. For its license application, DOE will implement further changes in repository design and modeling, which may result in somewhat lower long-term dose predictions than those reported in the FEIS.

1. Today scientists are still looking for the substance as a source of energy.

2. The Mendeleyev system has served for almost 100 years as a key to discovering new elements.

3. Synthetic rubber products were developed between 1914 and the 1030s.

4. The intensity of this process is influenced by many factors.

1. Molecular crystals are solids constructed of molecules held together by relatively weak forces.

2. A body moving with a certain velocity carries within itself the kinetic energy of motion.

3. While absorbing the energy of cosmic rays the upper atmosphere becomes radioactive.

4. Unless properly treated the metal must not be applied for space technology.

4. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните в каждом из них

модальный глагол или его эквивалент. Переведите на русский язык.

1. Energy can exist in many forms and each form can be transformed into the other.

2. The computers should become an integral part of the organization of industrial processes of all types.

3. These metal parts had to be subjected to X-rays examination.

4. The chemists may use the reactor to analyze various substances for their exact composition.

Unit 3

Grammar:

Простые неличные формы глагола: в функциях определения и обстоятельства – герундий, простые формы.

Образец выполнения:

1. The changes affecting the composition of material are called chemical changes. – Изменения, влияющие на состав материалов, называются химическими изменениями.

Affecting – Participle 1, определение.

1.Переведите текст.

Biofuels

In the race to slow global warming, transportation may be the trickiest problem. Americans own 136 million passenger cars and 92 million light trucks, a category that includes SUVs. Every gallon of gasoline burned in the average American vehicle sends 20 pounds of carbon dioxide out the tailpipe, according to the Environmental Protection Agency.

Transportation accounts for 33 percent of CO [sub 2] emissions in the U.S., and 24 percent worldwide. With China and other developing countries putting cars on the road at a record pace, that global percentage is sure to climb. Socolow estimates that by 2055, 2 billion cars, triple today's number will be operating.

The only way to reduce vehicles' greenhouse-gas emissions is to make them dramatically more efficient or change their source of power. In this country, according to EPA, passenger vehicles are no more efficient than they were in the early 1990s, and they're less efficient than they were in the late 1980s. America's fleet of «light-duty" vehicles, which includes cars, SUVs, vans, and small pickups, averages 21 miles per gallon. In 1987 and 1988, the average was more than 22 mpg.

David Friedman, research director of the Union of Concerned Scientists' clean-vehicles program, said that carmakers already know how to make the average car or SUV go farther on a tank of gas. "With conventional technology, we can look at cutting global-warming pollution by 40 percent," he said, "just by using boring, ho-hum things like more-efficient engines, better transmissions, high-strength steel and aluminum, and something called an integrated starter generator, which allows engines to shut off when you're at a stoplight or in stop-and-go traffic."

Today's most popular alternative to gasoline is ethanol. In the U.S., ethanol is made almost exclusively from corn. Some economists worry that the popularity of corn-based ethanol could drive up the price of corn, slowing imports and raising the cost of food. Farm groups call that fear unfounded.

Today's cars and SUVs can tolerate a gasoline blend that includes 10 percent ethanol. In some parts of the country, producers have long added small amounts of ethanol to gas to reduce emissions of smog-causing pollutants. The United States now has 100 ethanol refineries, which produce a total of 4.7 billion gallons a year, according to the Renewable Fuels Association. Construction is under way on 32 plants, which together will produce another 2 billion gallons.

Detroit is making flexible-fuel vehicles that can run on a blend of 85 percent ethanol and 15 percent gasoline or use conventional gasoline when the ethanol blend, called E85, isn't available. An estimated 3.8 million flexible-fuel cars are on U.S. highways today, according to the Alliance for Automobile Manufacturers. But only about 700 gas stations nationwide offer E85. So the vast majority of flexible-fuel cars are using conventional gasoline.

So why do automakers produce the flexible-fuel cars? The federal government gives automakers a credit of up to 1.2 mpg for each flexible-fuel car or truck they sell. That credit helps the car companies meet federal corporate average fuel economy standards, which are based on the total number of cars and light trucks each firm sells. Each company's car fleet must average 27.5 mpg; light trucks, including SUVs, must average 21.6 mpg.

Still another bump in the ethanol road is that corn-based ethanol reduces the CO [sub 2] emissions that a given vehicle is responsible for by only about 10 percent, once you factor in the petroleum used in the farm equipment and the fertilizer used to grow and harvest the corn. Making ethanol from other plants or from agricultural waste, called cellulosic ethanol, can more significantly reduce greenhouse-gas emissions.

Cellulosic ethanol is made from high-fiber plant materials from cornstalks and agricultural plant wastes to crops grown specifically for ethanol production, such as woody plants. Friedman of the Union of Concerned Scientists said that cellulosic ethanol produces 80 to 90 percent fewer greenhouse-gas emissions than gasoline. "But we need some breakthroughs in terms of the efficiency of making ethanol from those materials," he said. DOE's Garman said that cellulosic ethanol now costs $2 to $2.50 per gallon to make, while corn-based ethanol costs about $1 a gallon.

The president has taken up the call for cellulosic ethanol. In his 2006 State of the Union address, Bush promised to make the fuel commercially competitive within six years. According to the White House, cellulosic ethanol can replace up to 30 percent of the gasoline used by U.S. drivers.

Energy Department officials are even more optimistic. Garman said a 2005 study conducted by DOE and the Agriculture Department found that the U.S. produces 1 billion tons of plant waste. "That could produce enough biofuels to displace 60 billion gallons of gasoline," he said. "Today we use about 135 billion gallons [a year], so 60 is a lot. That's why you saw the president excited about cellulosic ethanol and its potential worldwide."

Scientists in government and corporate laboratories are focused on developing crops that can generate more ethanol per acre. They're also seeking easier ways to turn woody material, such as switch grass, into commercial ethanol. "In a climate-constrained world, you'd actually grow crops for their energy content alone," said Edmonds of the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. "You can use biotechnology to develop bulk fuels and designer enzymes targeted at breaking down a particular plant and its cell structure."

For farmers, switching from corn to cellulosic plants might be quite profitable. "Maybe a decade from now, we might be making ethanol on a broad scale from cellulosic," said Dave Miller, director of research and commodity services at the Iowa Farm Bureau. "I'm told the yield of ethanol per acre may make it advantageous to jump from corn to woody pulp plants," he said. "Hey, if that's the case, we may be growing fast-growing poplars in Iowa."

1. The reactor is fast becoming a major source of heat and electricity.

2. Scientists have found ways of measuring the sizes and positions of bodies in the Universe.

3. Elements are transformed into other elements both by man and by nature.

4. The launching of Sputnik 1 was followed by many achievements in science and engineering.

1. These reactions convert hydrogen into helium, giving off a great amount of light and heat.

2. The formula E=mc2 deduced by Einstein is perhaps the most well-known equation in the world.

3. Soils containing too much sand or clay are of less value in agriculture.

4. Plastics articles are often difficult to repair if broken.

1. Laser light can be used to transmit power of various types.

2. The application of digital computers should include all forms of automatic control in science and industry.

3. These new materials had to withstand much higher temperatures than metals.

4. Ethylene gas may be obtained by cracking petroleum.

Unit 4

Grammar:

Грамматические функции и значения слов that, one, it.

Образец выполнения:

Present Perfect Passive:

The main question has already been discussed. - Главный вопрос уже обсудили.

Present Simple Passive:

His scientific work is much spoken about. – О его научной работе много говорят.

1.Переведите текст.

A system approach to future energy research

Given the need to conserve carbon-bearing energy sources for as long as possible, it is imperative to find and advance new sources of low-carbon or renewable energy, including biomass, marine, photovoltaic, fuel cells, new-fission and fusion and to develop carbon management technologies. This will require fundamental and applied whole-systems research across the engineering, physical, life, and social sciences. The energy system is perhaps one of the largest, naturally-, socially-, and capital-intense examples of an interacting system. It may only be developed by whole-system research over the next two decades there will need to be new kinds of conceptual and technological tools operated on the multiple intersections of, for instance, biology, engineering, geology, communications, meteorology and climatology. There will need to be significant and enabling scientific advances in new materials, computing, data capture, and synthesis, communications, modelling, visualisation, and control. Highly novel approaches will need to be applied in research activity all the way down the energy supply chain to help establish viable future energy sources.

For example, spatial and temporal characterisation of the main marine renewable energy resources – offshore-wind, wave, and tidal-currents will require advances in atmospheric sensing, climate and weather data acquisition in order to be able to model fully the behaviour and interaction of wind, sea, and devices down to and through the air-water boundary. This will increase the ability to predict the variable energy production, forecast and survive storms and improve coastal defence. Real-time modelling of the combined effects of waves and tidal-currents will also be necessary to predict device interaction, reliability, and survivability. This will not only require powerful new predictive modelling capabilities to model the combination of meteorological, climatic, oceanographic, environmental, and social effects, against a backdrop of climate change. This type of modelling capability may be made possible by the kinds of advanced modelling approaches outlined above in the 'Prediction Machines' section.

Bio-energy crops, as another example, offer large untapped potential as a source of renewable energy with near-carbon neutrality if grown, harvested, and converted efficiently and with predictable performance. Production of both solid fuels (combusted dry and wet biomass) and liquid fuels (bioethanol, biodiesel) from a wide range of dedicated energy crops (such as grasses and short rotation trees) and food crop plant sources (including wheat, maize, and sugar beet) in an environmentally sustainable manner requires better synergies between fundamental biological discoveries in genomics and post-genomics, and the application of massive computing power. This 'systems biology' approach aims to harness the information from molecules through to whole organisms – from DNA to transcriptome and proteome and beyond. Technologies in high throughput biology will generate vast data in this area over the coming decades and advanced computing processes and technologies will be vital, from the development of grid systems for data sharing through to producing new algorithms to make predictive models for enhanced plant performance and 'designed' plant quality. Similar principles can be applied to harnessing the power of micro-organisms where enzyme systems for degrading lingo-cellulose may be available but not yet applied in commercial systems. Biohydrogen and artificial photosynthesis provide another biological resource for future development and identifying natural variation and mutations in DNA that may be relevant to evolving these technologies will again rely on development of new computing approaches. At the other end of this energy chain there are coal-fired power stations that could be readily adapted for co-firing with biomaterials such as straw and coppice wood. However, optimized co-firing wood introduce new challenges in design and prediction. Modeling flow and combustion for particulates with such disparate densities, sizes, and compositions as coal and straw requires an improvement in complexity, resolution, and visualization of the flow, combustion, and energy processes amounting to several orders of magnitude over that which is currently being used.

These are just two examples of the many renewable energy resources that could become part of a lower-carbon electricity supply by 2020, but integration of renewable resources with the electricity network in most countries presents another barrier that must be removed. Many of these resources are most abundant in the least densely populated areas, where the electricity distribution network was originally installed to supply increasingly remote areas of lower demand. The network there is largely passive and not actively managed with outward uni-directional power flows from the centrally dispatched power plants connected to the transmission network. The number of generators connected to the future distribution network could be orders of magnitude greater than the number of larger plants currently connected to the existing transmission network. Power flows will reverse in many areas and will be stochastic in nature. Rapid collection, transmission, and processing of data to produce near real-time control responses to this stochastic change will be a key to successful operation of such a future electricity supply system. Assimilation of the data and the state estimation of the network to anticipate and control changes in the system will require bi-directional communication. The volume and speed of data flow and its processing will need to be increased by several orders of magnitude. There will need to be new data aggregation, storage, and processing algorithms to enable the new control techniques at the end of the two-way communication. Machine learning and near real-time optimization techniques may offer this advance in the period up to 2020.

There are many advances that will be necessary to realize these and other future sources of energy, and to understand mitigate change to the natural environment due to the renewable energy conversion. This will have to be set in the whole-systems interdisciplinary context and calls for computing and computer science roadmaps to plan the journey for the techniques and technology to the end points that support this vision. To this end, this 2020 science roadmap serves a vital purpose alongside the other research road-mapping taking place in the individual technologies.

1. Quantum mechanics has greatly influenced the nuclear theory.

2. The problem of the structure of matter is constantly occupying the minds of many scientists.

3. To day many polymeric materials are produced on a massive scale.

4. Many compounds can be decomposed when they are acted upon by different forces of energy.

1. Natural rubber is a thermoplastic material that becomes soft when heated and hard when cooled.

2. Matter composed of any chemical combination of elements is called a compound.

3. The smallest particle having all the characteristics of an element is called an atom.

4. While bombarding the upper layers of the atmosphere, cosmic rays reach the surface of the Earth.

1. Heat can be divided into three different types.

2. A great number of plastics should find their application in the electrical industry.

3. Chemical means had to be used for the separation of compounds into their elements.

4. The existence of an X-ray laser in the future may be possible.

Unit 5

Grammar:

Функции глаголов to be, to have, to do.

Образец выполнения:

1. It is necessary to use the latest means of control in industry. – Необходимо использовать в промышленности новейшие средства контроля.

2. One should agree that the experiment was of great importance for our research. - Следует согласиться, что тот эксперимент имел большое значение для нашего исследования.

3. It is hydrogen that will be the main source of energy in the car of the future. - Именно водород будет основным источником энергии в автомобили будущего.

1. Переведите текст.

The steam power plant

The function of a steam power plant is to convert the energy in nuclear reactions or in coal, oil or gas into mechanical or electric energy through the expansion of steam from high pressure in a suitable prime mover such as a turbine or engine, a non-condensing plant discharges the steam from the prime mover at an exhausts from the prime mover into a condenser at a pressure less than atmospheric pressure.

In general, central station plants are condensing plants since their sole output is electric energy and a reduction in the exhaust pressure at the prime mover decrease the amount of steam required to produce a given quantity of electric energy. Industrial plants are frequently non-condensing plants because large quantities of low-pressure steam are required for operation of a manufacturing operation. The power required for operation of a manufacturing plant may often be obtained as a by-product by generating steam at high pressure and expanding this steam in a prime mover to the back pressure at which the steam is needed for manufacturing processes.

The steam-generating unit consists of a furnace in which the fuel is burnt, a boiler, super heater, and economizer, in which high-pressure steam is generated, and an air heater in which the loss of the energy due to combustion of the fuel is recurred to a minimum. The boiler is composed of a drum, in which a water level is maintained at about the mid-point so as to permit separation of the steam from the water, and a bank of inclined tubes, connected to the drum in such a manner as to permit water to circulate from the drum through the tubes and back to the drum. The hot products of combustion from the furnace flow across the boiler tubes and evaporate part of the water in the tubes. The furnace walls are composed of tubes which are also connected to the boiler drum to form very effective steam-generating surfaces. The steam which is separated from the water in the boiler drum then flows through a super heater which is in effect a coil of tubing surrounded by the hot products of combustion. The temperature of the steam is increased in the super heater which to perhaps 800° to 1100° F, at which temperature the high-pressure superheated steam flows through suitable piping to the turbine.

Since gaseous products of combustion leaving the boiler tube bank are at a relatively high temperature and their discharge to the chimney would result in large loss energy, an economizer may be used to recover part of the energy in these gases. The economizer is a bank of tubes through which the boiler feed water is pumped on its way to the boiler drum.

A reduction in gas temperature may be made by passing the products of combustion through an air heater which is a heat exchanger cooled by the air required for combustion. This air is supplied to the air heater at 400° to 600° F, thus returning to the furnace energy that would otherwise be wasted up the chimney. The products of combustion are usually cooled in an air heater to an exit temperature of 275° to 400° F, after which they may be passed through a dust collector which will remove objectionable dust and thence through an induced-draft fan to the chimney. The function of the induced-draft fan is to pull the gases through the heat-transfer surfaces of the.

1. Astronomers have measured the exact length of the day.

2. Astronomers find that the day is increasing by 0.002 seconds each century.

3. The chemical properties of an element are determined by the orbiting electrons.

4. As a rule one great discovery is generally followed by numerous others.

1. The cloud chamber ( камера Вильсона) is one of the devices used to detect the presence of radioactivity.

2. Matter consists of one or a number of basic elements occurring in nature.

3. One can use several modern devices while detecting and measuring radioactivity.

4. When heated to a certain temperatures this alloy increases in volume.

1. We can think of heat as a special form kinetic energy.

2. A computer should solve complicated problems many millions of times faster than a mathematician.

3. New types of plastics had to be obtained for space technology.

4. To measure the vast distance between planets scientists have to use special instruments.

Unit 6

Grammar:

Простые неличные формы глагола. Инфинитив в функции; а) подлежащего; б) составной части сказуемого; в) определения; г) обстоятельства цели.

Образец выполнения:

1. What is the name of the book you are reading? – Как называется книга, которую ты читаешь?

2. The region we must explore possesses great natural wealth. –Район, который мы должны исследовать, обладает огромными природными ресурсами.

1. Переведите текст.

A thermal power station

A thermal power station is a power plant in which the prime mover is steam driven. Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an electrical generator. After it passes through the turbine, the steam is condensed in a condenser and recycled to where it was heated; this is known as a Rankin cycle. The greatest variation in the design of thermal power stations is due to the different fuel sources. Some prefer to use the term energy centre because such facilities convert forms of heat energy into electricity.

Some thermal power plants also deliver heat energy for industrial purposes, for district heating, or for desalination of water as well as delivering electrical power. A large part of human CO₂ emissions comes from fossil fueled thermal power plants; efforts to reduce these outputs are various and widespread. Almost all coal, nuclear, geothermal, solar thermal electric, and waste incineration plants, as well as many natural gas power plants are thermal. Natural gas is frequently combusted in gas turbines as well as boilers. The waste heat from a gas turbine can be used to raise steam, in a combined cycle plant that improves overall efficiency. Power plants burning coal, fuel oil, or natural gas are often called fossil-fuel power plants. Some biomass-fueled thermal power plants have appeared also. Non-nuclear thermal power plants, particularly fossil-fueled plants, which do not use co-generation, are sometimes referred to as conventional power plants.

Commercial electric utility power stations are usually constructed on a large scale and designed for continuous operation. Electric power plants typically use three-phase electrical generators to produce alternating current (AC) electric power at a frequency of 50 Hz or 60 Hz. Large companies or institutions may have their own power plants to supply heating or electricity to their facilities, especially if steam is created anyway for other purposes. Steam-driven power plants have been used in various large ships, but are now usually used in large naval ships. Shipboard power plants usually directly couple the turbine to the ship's propellers through gearboxes.

Power plants in such ships also provide steam to smaller turbines driving electric generators to supply electricity. Shipboard steam power plants can be either fossil fuel or nuclear. Nuclear marine propulsion is, with few exceptions, used only in naval vessels. There have been perhaps about a dozen turbo-electric ships in which a steam-driven turbine drives an electric generator which powers an electric motor for propulsion.

2. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из них видовременную форму и залог глагола – сказуемого. Переведите их на русский язык.

1. When much material had been looked through and some problems had been solved, the article was published.

2. Eectric cars will be widely used in future.

3. Today plastics are being applied for car bodies (корпус авто).

4. This lecture is listened to with great interest.

3. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на разные значения слов it, that,one.

1. It is proved that light needs time to travel any distance.

2. One must take part in scientific work.

3. Specialists consider that in future city transport will reject gasoline.

4. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите на русский язык, обращая внимание на разные значения глаголов to be, to have, to do.

1. You have to come to the language laboratory of the university to work at your pronunciation.

2. This material does not possess elastic properties.

3. Scientists had to create new materials for industry.

4. The exam was to start in the morning.

5. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на бессоюзное подчинение.

1. We know electricity produces heat.

2. The new materials the chemists developed were used in space technology.

6. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на функцию инфинитива.

1. It is necessary for specialists to know a foreign language.

2. The Soviet scientists were the first to construct and launch the space rocket.

3. Our idea was to design a new device for automatic control.

4. To increase the productivity of labour one must use the methods we have just described.

Unit 7

Grammar:

Present, Past Simple.

1. Переведите текст.

In fossil-fueled power plants, steam generator refers to a furnace that burns the fossil fuel to boil water to generate steam.

In the nuclear plant field, steam generator refers to a specific type of large heat exchanger used in a pressurized water reactor (PWR) to thermally connect the primary (reactor plant) and secondary (steam plant) systems, which generates steam. In a nuclear reactor called a boiling water reactor (BWR), water is boiled to generate steam directly in the reactor itself and there are no units called steam generators.

In some industrial settings, there can also be steam-producing heat exchangers called [[heat recovery steam generators (HRSG) which utilize heat from some industrial process. The steam generating boiler has to produce steam at the high purity, pressure and temperature required for the steam turbine that drives the electrical generator.

Geothermal plants need no boiler since they use naturally occurring steam sources. Heat exchangers may be used where the geothermal steam is very corrosive or contains excessive suspended solids.

A fossil fuel steam generator includes an economizer, a steam drum, and the furnace with its steam generating tubes and super heater coils. Necessary safety valves are located at suitable points to avoid excessive boiler pressure. The air and flue gas path equipment include: forced draft (FD) fan, Air Preheated (AP), boiler furnace, induced draft (ID) fan, fly ash collectors (electrostatic precipitator.

1. When much had been done in the study of ecology by our university it became an important scientific centre.

2. A curriculum of the new type of secondary school is offered by the Ministry of Education.

3. He research of planets will be developed with the help of cosmic apparatus.

4. This material is unaffected by solar radiation.

3. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на разные значения слов it, that, one.

1. It is necessary to find new sources of cheap energy.

2. It was Einstein who came to the conclusion that the electromagnetic field is influenced by the gravitational field.

3. This metro station was opened last year and that one will be put into operation in two years.

1. We had to learn to obtain electric power directly from the sun.

2. At present most of industrial enterprises have their own electric power stations.

3. Specialists do not use solar cells in industry as they are too expensive.

4. The engineers are to study the problem of using cosmic rays.

1. The methods we have just described are very effective.

2. The instruments our plant produce help to automate production processes.

6. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на функцию инфинитива.

1. The teacher told her students to learn the poem by heart.

2. The Soviet Union was the first country to send man into space.

3. To translate a sentence is to discover its meaning.

4. The working people all over the world are uniting to fight the threat of a new war.

Unit 8

1. Переведите текст.

Boiler operation

The boiler is a rectangular furnace about 50 feet (15 m) on a side and 130 feet (40 m) tall. Its walls are made of a web of high pressure steel tubes about 2.3 inches (58 mm) in diameter.

Pulverized coal is air-blown into the furnace from fuel nozzles at the four corners and it rapidly burns, forming a large fireball at the centre. The thermal radiation of the fireball heats the water that circulates through the boiler tubes near the boiler perimeter. The water circulation rate in the boiler is three to four times the throughput and is typically driven by pumps.

As the water in the boiler circulates it absorbs heat and changes into steam at 700 °F (370 °C) and 3,200 psi (22,000 kPa). It is separated from the water inside a drum at the top of the furnace. The saturated steam is introduced into superheat pendant tubes that hang in the hottest part of the combustion gases as they exit the furnace. Here the steam is superheated to 1,000 °F (540 °C) to prepare it for the turbine.

Plants designed for lignite (brown coal) are increasingly used in locations as varied as Germany, Victoria, Australia and North Dakota. Lignite is a much younger form of coal than black coal. It has a lower energy density than black coal and requires a much larger furnace for equivalent heat output. Such coals may contain up to 70% water and ash, yielding lower furnace temperatures and requiring larger induced-draft fans.

The firing systems also differ from black coal and typically draw hot gas from the furnace-exit level and mix it with the incoming coal in fan-type mills that inject the pulverized coal and hot gas mixture into the boiler.

Plants that use gas turbines to heat the water for conversion into steam use boilers known as heat recovery steam generators (HRSG). The exhaust heat from the gas turbines is used to make superheated steam that is then used in a conventional water-steam generation cycle, as described in gas turbine combined-cycle plants section below.

1. The radar has been used for the automatic control of transport.

2. Today plastics are being widely used instead of metals.

3. The construction of the dam has been completed this month.

4. The alloys were experimented upon in our laboratory.

1. It is the number of electrons within the atom that determines the properties.

2. The territory of Kazakhstan is larger than that of London.

3. In London one must get used to the left-side traffic.

1. Some substances do not conduct heat.

2. Our plant is to increase the output of consumer goods.

3. Soon our industry will have new and cheep sources of energy.

4. These computers will have to perform millions of operations per second.

1. The hostel our students live in is situated not far from the metro station.

2. I think he has made a mistake in his calculations.

6. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на функцию инфинитива.

1. They promised to supply us with the necessary equipment.

2. The purpose of this book is to describe certain properties of metals.

3. The experiment to be carried out is of great importance for our research.

4. To convert chemical energy into electrical energy we must use an electrical cell.

Unit 9

1. Переведите текст.

Boiler furnace and steam drum

The water enters the boiler through a section in the convection pass called the economizer. From the economizer it passes to the steam drum. Once the water enters the steam drum it goes down to the lower inlet water wall headers. From the inlet headers the water rises through the water walls and is eventually turned into steam due to the heat being generated by the burners located on the front and rear water walls (typically).

As the water is turned into steam/vapour in the water walls, the steam/vapour once again enters the steam drum. The steam/vapour is passed through a series of steam and water separators and then dryers inside the steam drum. The steam separators and dryers remove water droplets from the steam and the cycle through the water walls is repeated. This process is known as natural circulation.

The boiler furnace auxiliary equipment includes coal feed nozzles and igniters’ guns, soot blowers, water lancing and observation ports (in the furnace walls) for observation of the furnace interior. Furnace explosions due to any accumulation of combustible gases after a trip-out are avoided by flushing out such gases from the combustion zone before igniting the coal.

The steam drum (as well as the super heater coils and headers) have air vents and drains needed for initial start up. The steam drum has an internal device that removes moisture from the wet steam entering the drum from the steam generating tubes. The dry steam then flows into the super heater coils.

Fossil fuel power plants often have a super heater section in the steam generating furnace. The steam passes through drying equipment inside the steam drum on to the super heater, a set of tubes in the furnace. Here the steam picks up more energy from hot flue gases outside the tubing and its temperature is now superheated above the saturation temperature. The superheated steam is then piped through the main steam lines to the valves before the high pressure turbine.

Nuclear-powered steam plants do not have such sections but produce steam at essentially saturated conditions. Experimental nuclear plants were equipped with fossil-fired super heaters in an attempt to improve overall plant operating cost.

1. The automatic equipment is being installed in our shop.

2. Radioactive isotopes have been made in nuclear reactor.

3. The construction of this house will be completed in a month.

4. The engineer was asked about the new technology used at the plant.

1. The successes in chemistry made it possible to obtain a lot of new materials.

2. One must apply the material that can be machined easily.

3. It is energy of falling water that is used to drive turbines.

1. The operation dealing with radioisotopes must have protective suits.

2. The engineer are to study the problem of using solar energy.

3. The chemical industry is one of the leading branches of our national economy.

4. Kazakhstan factories have acquired good reputation abroad.

1. I think the drawing will be ready by tomorrow.

2. Every substance a man comes in contact with consists of molecules.

6. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на функцию инфинитива.

1. To design new buildings is the work of an architect.

2. To measure volumes we must know the dimensions of a body.

3. Our plant was the first to install the automatic equipment.

4. Architects have built houses to be heated by solar radiation.

Unit 10

1. Переведите текст.

Steam condensing

The condenser condenses the steam from the exhaust of the turbine into liquid to allow it to be pumped. If the condenser can be made cooler, the pressure of the exhaust steam is reduced and efficiency of the cycle increases.

The surface condenser is a shell and tube heat exchanger in which cooling water is circulated through the tubes. The exhaust steam from the low pressure turbine enters the shell where it is cooled and converted to condensate (water) by flowing over the tubes as shown in the adjacent diagram. Such condensers use steam ejectors or rotary motor-driven exhausters for continuous removal of air and gases from the steam side to maintain vacuum.

For best efficiency, the temperature in the condenser must be kept as low as practical in order to achieve the lowest possible pressure in the condensing steam. Since the condenser temperature can almost always be kept significantly below 100 °C where the vapour pressure of water is much less than atmospheric pressure, the condenser generally works under vacuum. Thus leaks of non-condensable air into the closed loop must be prevented.

Typically the cooling water causes the steam to condense at a temperature of about 35 °C (95 °F) and that creates an absolute pressure in the condenser of about 2–7 kPa (0.59–2.1 inHg), i.e. a vacuum of about −95 kPa (−28.1 inHg) relative to atmospheric pressure. The large decrease in volume that occurs when water vapor condenses to liquid creates the low vacuum that helps pull steam through and increase the efficiency of the turbines.

The limiting factor is the temperature of the cooling water and that, in turn, is limited by the prevailing average climatic conditions at the power plant's location (it may be possible to lower the temperature beyond the turbine limits during winter, causing excessive condensation in the turbine). Plants operating in hot climates may have to reduce output if their source of condenser cooling water becomes warmer; unfortunately this usually coincides with periods of high electrical demand for air conditioning.

The condenser generally uses either circulating cooling water from a cooling tower to reject waste heat to the atmosphere, or once-through water from a river, lake or ocean.

The heat absorbed by the circulating cooling water in the condenser tubes must also be removed to maintain the ability of the water to cool as it circulates. This is done by pumping the warm water from the condenser through either natural draft, forced draft or induced draft cooling towers (as seen in the image to the right) that reduce the temperature of the water by evaporation, by about 11 to 17 °C (20 to 30 °F)—expelling waste heat to the atmosphere. The circulation flow rate of the cooling water in a 500 MW unit is about 14.2 m³/s (500 ft³/s or 225,000 US gal/min) at full load.

The condenser tubes are made of brass or stainless steel to resist corrosion from either side. Nevertheless they may become internally fouled during operation by bacteria or algae in the cooling water or by mineral scaling, all of which inhibit heat transfer and reduce thermodynamic efficiency. Many plants include an automatic cleaning system that circulates sponge rubber balls through the tubes to scrub them clean without the need to take the system off-line.

The cooling water used to condense the steam in the condenser returns to its source without having been changed other than having been warmed. If the water returns to a local water body (rather than a circulating cooling tower), it is tempered with cool 'raw' water to prevent thermal shock when discharged into that body of water.

Another form of condensing system is the air-cooled condenser. The process is similar to that of a radiator and fan. Exhaust heat from the low pressure section of a steam turbine runs through the condensing tubes, the tubes are usually finned and ambient air is pushed through the fins with the help of a large fan. The steam condenses to water to be reused in the water-steam cycle. Air-cooled condensers typically operate at a higher temperature than water-cooled versions. While saving water, the efficiency of the cycle is reduced (resulting in more carbon dioxide per megawatt of electricity).

From the bottom of the condenser, powerful condensate pumps recycle the condensed steam (water) back to the water/steam cycle.

1. Many 16-storey houses with all modern conveniences are being built in this part of Almaty.

2. The sputniks are used for the research of magnetic fields and cosmic rays.

3. The properties of materials are affected by solar radiation.

4. Scientific and engineering progress opens up wide prospects before man.

1. It is necessary to obtain accurate data on the possibility of living and working in space.

2. The people know that their joint efforts can secure peace in the whole world.

3. We had to find new methods of investigation because the old ones were unsatisfactory.

1. A programme for the construction of new types of spaceships is to be carried out this year.

2. Soviet people did not pay for medical treatment.

3. We had to change the design of this machine.

4. The speed of electrons is almost the same at that of light.

1. We know radio and radar systems play a very important role at any airport.

2. The information science gets about other galaxies comes through radio telescopes.

6. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на функцию инфинитива.

1. The Soviet sciences was the first to make great contribution to the development of space technology.

2. In order to make interplanetary flights in the future it is necessary to know factor affecting the human organism.

3. The main purpose of the computers is to solve complex problems quickly.

Список литературы

1. The history of the Light Bulb. Net Guides Publishing, Inc. 2004.

2. Faraday Page. The Royal Institute 2008.

3. Blabock, Thomas. Alternating Current Electrification, 2004.

4. Gene Wolf. Electricity Through the Ages. 2005.

5. Tony R. All about Circuits. 2009.

Содержание

Unit 1. Steam turbine 3

Unit 2. Nuclear waste the distant future 6

Unit 3. Biofuels 10

Unit 4. A system approach to Future Energy Research 14

Unit 5. The steam power plant 16

Unit 7. Present, Past Simple 21

Unit 8. Boiler operation 23

Unit 9. Boiler Furnace and Steam Drum 24

Unit 10. Steam Condensing 26

Сводный план 2014. поз. 276

Улжамиля Бибатыровна Серикбаева
АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК
Методические указания по развитию навыков чтения и перевода научно- технических текстов
для студентов специальности 5В071700 – Теплоэнергетика

Редактор Н.М.Голева
Специалист по стандартизации Н.К. Молдабекова

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