МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ РЕСПУБЛИКИ КАЗАХСТАН

 Алматинский институт энергетики и связи

 

 

А.К. Садыкова

 

АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК

 (English for power engineering students)

Учебное пособие

  

Алматы 2008

 

 

         Цель пособия – обучение студентов энергетических специальностей чтению и переводу научно-популярных и технических текстов по специальности. В основу пособия положены тексты, отобранные из оригинальных источников, которые расположены в определенной логической последовательности. Пособие содержит серию упражнений, направленных как на проверку усвоения изученного материла, как и творческого характера.

 

 Предисловие 

Вашему вниманию предлагается пособие для высших учебных заведений энергетического профиля. Основная цель пособия заключается в  формировании у обучаемых навыков и умений чтения и понимания оригинальной литературы по специальности на английском языке, а также развитие умений говорения в пределах проработанной тематики.

Пособие состоит из двух частей: основного курса и краткого грамматического справочника. Так как пособие рассчитано на студентов, продолжающих изучение английского языка, некоторые грамматические темы не рассматриваются. Выбор тем обусловлен наиболее сложными моментами, которые встречаются в практике перевода научно-технической литературы.

Все части пособия поделены на уроки (Units), которые имеют аналогичную структуру. Пособие содержит 10 урока. Каждый урок (Unit) посвящен определенному грамматическому явлению, представленному кратко и схематично.  Пособие содержит значительное количество соответствующих предтекстовых тренировочных лексико-грамматических упражнений, подготавливающих обучающихся к работе с текстом. Основная цель многих упражнений – изучение и закрепление, включенных в урок грамматических явлений; чтение, понимание и перевод словосочетаний и предложений.  Используемая лексика носит общенаучный, технический и специфичный характер. Послетекстовые упражнения направлены на дальнейшее развитие навыков и умений чтения и перевода, а также устной и письменной речи. Послетекстовые упражнения представлены репродуктивно-продуктивными и творческими упражнениями, направленными на проверку усвоения изученного материала, а также понимания и извлечения информации из иноязычного текста. Упражнения позволяют обеспечить не только работу в аудитории, но и самостоятельную работу студентов.

Тексты пособия отобраны из оригинальной литературы по данной отрасли и не подвергались никакой адаптации. Последовательность текстовых материалов имеет логическую направленность, соответствующую логике структуры специальностей энергетического профиля.

Все замечания и пожелания, направленные на устранение недостатков данного пособия, будут приняты автором с благодарностью.

Автор выражает особую признательность рецензентам: зав.кафедрой методики преподавания английского языка КазУМОиМЯ им.Абылай хана, к.п.н., профессору Кузнецовой Т.Д. и старш. преподавателю кафедры иностранных  языков АИЭС Коробейниковой Л.Я.

  

Unit 1

Grammar: The system of Tenses in Active and Passive Voice

 

The system of Tenses in Active Voice 

 

Present

Past

Future

Indefinite

define

defines

defined

will define

Continuous

am/is/are defining

was/were defining

will be defining

Perfect

have/has defined

had defined

will have defined

Perfect Continuous

have/has been defining

had been defining

will have been defining

 

The system of Tenses in Passive Voice 

 

Present

Past

Future

Indefinite

am/is/are defined

was/were defined

will be defined

Continuous

am/is/are being defined

was/were being defined

Perfect

have/has been defined

had been defined

will have been defined

 

Exercise 1. Put down the tense forms of the verbs.

 

Model: to install (Present Perfect, Passive) had been installed

 

to heat (Past Indefinite) ____________________________

to discharge (Past Continuous, Passive)________________

to demand (Past Perfect)____________________________

to move (Future Indefinite)__________________________

to cause (Future Indefinite, Passive)___________________

to increase (Present Perfect Continuous)________________

to form (Present Indefinite, Passive)___________________

to build (Past Indefinite, Passive)_____________________

to burn (Present Continuous)_________________________

to produce (Present Perfect)__________________________

 

Exercise 2. State the voice and the tense form of the following verbs.

 

were being demanded, transmits, is connected, had been repeated, will not operate, was enriched, did not circulate, have not emitted, moved, is being considered, has burnt, is generating, will be electrified, insulate, have installed, was being located, have been supplying, will maintain, is discharging, have been replaced, had extended, will have been linked, heated, has been increased, is circulating, have controlled, had been forming, had been released, were reducing, will fulfil, will have been required, will have produced

 

Exercise 3. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the voice and the tense form of the predicates.

 

1. These tests were conducted under compression and higher flow stresses. 2. The molecule of an element consists of a definite (usually small) number of its atoms.   3. The quantity of steel constructions for machinery-building enterprises will be increased in future.  4.  By that time   we had already changed our plans. 5. The new engine is being tested in the laboratory. 6. Safety was always one of the main concerns of London transport. 7. These factors have been discussed elsewhere in detail and thus will be briefly summarized here. 8. The substance was at first purified and then subjected to strong heating. 9. The commercial production of aluminum was achieved only in 1988. 10. This device is preferred to all others because of its great reliability. 11. A new research is being carried out successfully. 12. Scientists had declared that every element was already known to them. 13. After he had completed his project he gave it to the professor. 13. The automatic lines manufacturing engines have been functioning for a number of years. 14. Several attempts have been made recently to produce artificial rain.

 

Exercise 4. Translate the following derivatives.

 

electrical - electricity - electrically - electrician; rotate – rotation - rotational; generate - generator - generative - generation; deliver - delivery - deliverable; add - addition - additional - additionally; convert - converter - convertible; revolve -revolving

 

Exercise 5. Translate the following words paying attention to a) the prefixes, b) the suffixes.

 

a)     unequal, insignificant, unnecessary, unbalanced, irregular, unloaded, untested, disappear, discharge, displace, reinvent, replace, non-conductor, superheat,  misused

b)    interconnection, starter, discovery, elastic, elasticity, resistance, waterproof, voltage, measurable, active, electromagnetic, mechanical, reversible, colourful, colourless

 

Exercise 6. Translate the following groups of words.

 

electric generator, pulse of current, to deliver electrical energy, electromagnetic self-rotors, to use electromagnetism principles, to convert mechanical rotation into an alternating electric current, permanent magnet, spinning magnet, opposite direction,  first commercial power plants, spinning coil, spinning endless loop, magnetic coupling, magnetic core, magnetic flux, high voltage power transmission, long distance transmission, power grids, shaft speed, gear ratio, electromagnetic induction

 

Exercise 7. Memorize the following words.

 

to allow – позволять, разрешать

to convert – превращать, обращать

core- 1) магн, маш сердечник, керн; 2) каб изолированная жила;

          3) фитиль (угля), сердцевина, стержень

to deliver - доставлять

distribution – распределение

dynamo - динамо-машина, динамо (генератор с самовозбуждением)

essence – сущность, существо

flux – 1) поток; 2) флюс, плавень

gear – зубчатая передача,  механизм, привод,  механическое  приспособление, зубчатый перебор;

to gear – сцепляться, зацепляться

impede – препятствовать, задерживать

impediment – препятствие, задержка

impedance – полное сопротивление

to induce – вызывать, заставлять

rectifier – 1) выпрямитель; 2) рад.  детектор; 3) хим. очиститель;

permanent - постоянный

rotation - вращение

rotor - ротор

stationary – неподвижный, постоянный,  устойчивый

to spin – запускать, крутиться

to transfer – переносить, перемещать, переводить, передавать

voltage - напряжение

winding – 1) витой, спиральный;  2) обмотка

to wrap – завертывать, завернуть

 

Text A[edit]

Dynamo

 

The dynamo was the first electrical generator capable of delivering power for industry. The dynamo uses electromagnetic principles to convert mechanical rotation into an alternating electric current. A dynamo machine consists of a stationary structure which generates a strong magnetic field, and a set of rotating windings which turn within that field. On small machines the magnetic field may be provided by a permanent magnet; larger machines have the magnetic field created by electromagnets.

The first dynamo based on Faraday's principles was built in 1832 by Hippolyte Pixii, a French instrument maker. It used a permanent magnet which was rotated by a crank. The spinning magnet was positioned so that its north and south poles passed by a piece of iron wrapped with wire. Pixii found that the spinning magnet produced a pulse of current in the wire each time a pole passed the coil. Furthermore, the north and south poles of the magnet induced currents in opposite directions. By adding a commutator, Pixii was able to convert the alternating current to direct current.

Unlike the Faraday disc, many turns of wire connected in series can be used in the moving windings of a dynamo. This allows the terminal voltage of the machine to be higher than a disc can produce, so that electrical energy can be delivered at a convenient voltage. The relationship between mechanical rotation and electric current in a dynamo is reversible; the principles of the electric motor were discovered when it was found that one dynamo could cause a second interconnected dynamo to rotate if current was fed through it.

The construction of a dynamo is similar to that of an electric motor, and all common types of dynamos could work as motors.

[edit]Jedlik's dynamo

In 1827, Anyos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic rotating devices which he called electromagnetic self-rotors. In the prototype of the single-pole electric starter (finished between 1852 and 1854) both the stationary and the revolving parts were electromagnetic. He formulated the concept of the dynamo at least 6 years before Siemens and Wheatstone. In essence the concept is that instead of permanent magnets, two electromagnets opposite to each other induce the magnetic field around the rotor.

[edit]Gramme dynamo

Both of these designs suffered from a similar problem: they induced "spikes" of current followed by none at all. Antonio Pacinotti, an Italian scientist, fixed this by replacing the spinning coil with a toroidal one, which he created by wrapping an iron ring. This meant that some part of the coil was continually passing by the magnets, smoothing out the current. Zénobe Gramme reinvented this design a few years later when designing the first commercial power plants, which operated in Paris in the 1870s. His design is now known as the Gramme dynamo. Various versions and improvements have been made since then, but the basic concept of a spinning endless loop of wire remains at the heart of all modern dynamos.

 

Exercise 8. Choose the correct form.

 

1. Development of nuclear power plants for civil use (began, has began, will begin) in the mid 1950s.  2. Heat losses should (reduce, be reduced, have reduced) constantly and effectively. 3. Electric charges (are acted, had been acted, will be acted) upon by forces when they move in the magnetic field. 4. Electricity generated by the conversion of light or mechanical energy (is used, used, will use) mainly for portable power sources. 5. Copper (was used, used, has been used) as a conductor since the beginning of the industry. 6. Now we (are using, use, are used) traditional power sources, that is, oil, gas, natural gas, coal and water power. 7. The world power capacity (is doubling, was being doubled, will be doubled) about per decade. 8. In some projects water (will be heated, heated, heats) by the warmth of mountains at a depth of four-five km. 9. The temperature (has been maintained, has maintained, will be maintained) at the point of 20 degrees since the beginning of the experiments. 10. The experiments (were being conducted, will be conducted, conducted) in some laboratories when the new term began.

 

 

Exercise 9. Paraphrase the following sentences using passive construction.

 

1. We often meet with difficulties in solving the problems of automatic control. 2. I will have made all the experiments necessary for the completion of the research by the end of the year. 3. The scientists of this research institute showed the engineer a new device which they had constructed. 4. They often referred to these measurements at the conference. 5. These scientists have reviewed the role of texture on properties of titanium alloys. 6. We have described the factors which affects the formation of these constituents in detail previously. 7. They are installing a totally new safety system.

 

Exercise 10. Think of questions to the following sentences.

 

         Example:    A steam power machine was invented by J.Watt.

                            What machine was invented by J.Watt?

                            Who invented the steam power machine?

        

1. Industrial enterprises are commonly built in the areas being rich in natural resources.

__________________________________________________________________

2. The disadvantage of power plants utilizing nuclear fuel is their radiation.

__________________________________________________________________

3. In most areas of the world, mercury is used to extract gold from ore.

__________________________________________________________________

4. The principal components of power plant are the nuclear reactor, the heat exchanger and steam turbine.

__________________________________________________________________

6. The cooling water is drawn from a source and passed through the condenser.

__________________________________________________________________

7. Britain’s first atomic station has begun to generate power in 1956.

___________________________________________________________________

8. Lomonosov and Franklin happened to make their experiments in the field of atmospheric electricity at about the same time.

__________________________________________________________________    

 

Exercise 11. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the voice and the tense form of the predicates.

 

1. Electrical loads or consumers in power installations are the various arrangements and installations that are used to transform electric power into mechanical, heat and chemical power, or energy. 2. In order to meet demands for power during the day, utilities have been turning to other forms of hydroelectric systems. 3. A gas-cooled reactor is nuclear reactor in which   the coolant is a gas. 4. Pierre Curie examined properties of crystals which led him to the discovery of piezoelectric properties. 5.The energy industry is undergoing considerable development. 6. What do substation power supply circuits depend on? 7. The lowest temperature theoretically possible is called the absolute zero. 8. The amount of heat depends on the current and the time it flows. 9. A few pounds of uranium can supply a medium-sized town with power it needs for a year. 10. In the electric generating field as well as in the transmission and storage-technology areas considerable attention is considered on the use of superconducting conductors because of their ability of losing their resistance under certain conditions, namely at temperatures close to absolute zero.

 

Exercise 12. Read the following supplementary text and translate it.

 

Text B[edit]

Transformers

 

A transformer is an electrical device that transfers energy from one circuit to another by magnetic coupling with no moving parts. A transformer comprises two or more coupled windings, or a single tapped winding and, in most cases, a magnetic core to concentrate magnetic flux. A changing current in one winding creates a time-varying magnetic flux in the core, which induces a voltage in the other windings.

The transformer is one of the simplest of electrical devices, yet transformer designs and materials continue to be improved. Transformers are essential for high voltage power transmission, which makes long distance transmission economically practical. This advantage was the principal factor in the selection of alternating current power transmission in the "War of Currents" in the late 1880s.

Transformers come in a range of sizes from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden inside a stage microphone to huge gigawatt units used to interconnect large portions of national power grids. All operate with the same basic principles and with many similarities in their parts.

The transformer may be considered as a simple two-wheel 'gearbox' for electrical voltage and current. The primary winding is analogous to the input shaft and the secondary winding to the output shaft. In this analogy, current is equivalent to shaft speed, voltage to shaft torque. In a gearbox, mechanical power (torque multiplied by speed) is constant (neglecting losses) and is equivalent to electrical power (voltage multiplied by current) which is also constant.

The gear ratio is equivalent to the transformer step-up or step-down ratio. A step-up transformer acts analogously to a reduction gear (in which mechanical power is transferred from a small, rapidly rotating gear to a large, slowly rotating gear): it trades current (speed) for voltage (torque), by transferring power from a primary coil to a secondary coil having more turns. A step-down transformer acts analogously to a multiplier gear (in which mechanical power is transferred from a large gear to a small gear): it trades voltage (torque) for current (speed), by transferring power from a primary coil to a secondary coil having fewer turns.

A simple transformer consists of two electrical conductors called the primary winding and the secondary winding. Energy is coupled between the windings by the time-varying magnetic flux that passes through (links) both primary and secondary windings. When the current in a coil is switched on or off or changed, a voltage is induced in a neighboring coil. The effect, called mutual inductance, is an example of electromagnetic induction.

Transformers are adapted to numerous engineering applications and may be classified in many ways:

§   By power level (from fraction of a volt-ampere(VA) to over a thousand MVA),

§   By application (power supply, impedance matching, circuit isolation),

§   By frequency range (power, audio, radio frequency(RF))

§   By voltage class (a few volts to about 750 kilovolts)

§   By cooling type (air cooled, oil filled, fan cooled, water cooled, etc.)

§   By purpose (distribution, rectifier, arc furnace, amplifier output, etc.).

§   By ratio of the number of turns in the coils

 

Exercise 13. Answer the questions.

 

1.           What devices are described in the texts? 2. What is the dynamo used for? 3. What transformer is used for? 4. What does a dynamo usually include? 5. What does the transformer consist of? 6. What other types of the device do you know?  7. In what ways transformers can be classified?

 

Exercise 14. Translate the following definitions and memorize the terms.

 

The parts of a dynamo or related equipment can be expressed in either mechanical terms or electrical terms. Although distinctly separate, these two sets of terminology are frequently used interchangeably or in combinations that include one mechanical term and one electrical term. This causes great confusion when working with compound machines such as a brushless alternator or when conversing with people who are used to working on a machine that is configured differently than the machines that the speaker is used to.

Mechanical
Rotor:
The rotating part of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor.
Stator: The stationary part of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor.

Electrical
Motors are used for converting different forms of energy into mechanical energy.

Electrical motors are used practically in every branch of industry, transport and agriculture.

Armature: The power-producing component of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor. The armature can be on either the rotor or the stator.

Field: The magnetic field component of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor. The field can be on either the rotor or the stator and can be either an electromagnet or a permanent magnet.

 

Exercise 15. Fill in the blanks with the following words.

 

conductors, electromagnet, electric energy,

 electrical conductor, armature, rotation, current, converted

 

1. ………..are materials having a low resistance so that current easily passes through them. 2. Dynamo is a common device for converting mechanical energy into …………. . 3. This process depends on the fact that if an ……….. moves across magnetic field, an electrical current flows in the conductor. 4. Usually a dynamo includes an …………., called the field magnet, between the poles of which a suitable conductor, usually in the form, called  the ………….., is rotated. 5. The mechanical energy of the ……….., in the form of a current in the armature, is thus ………… into electric energy.

 

Exercise 16.  Say a few words about your electrical engineering laboratory. You know that all electrical devices and installations are constructed of a certain number of components. To these components belong electric power sources, resistors, transformers, motors and others. Speak with your groupmates about their types, their use, operation and etc. Have a talk with your groupmates.

 

Unit 2

Grammar: The Participle

 

Exercise 1. Participle I/Participle II. Put the Participle in the form suitable for the noun.

 

         A) Participle I                                     B) Participle II

1. (grow) interest                               7. (complicate) explanation

2. (construct) roads                           8. (develop) country

3. (generate) unit                                 9. (obtain) results

4. (run) water                                     10. (use) method

5. (follow) chapter                              11. (destroy) building

6. (insulate) material                           12. (heat)water

 

Exercise 2. Translate the following word combinations into English paying attention to Participle I/Participle II.

 

А) 1. методы, улучшающие исследовательскую работу

2. расширяющиеся газы

3. оборудование, установленное в лаборатории

4. проблема, решенная успешно

5. инженер, использующий новые достижения

6. прибор, сконструированный инженером

7. полученные результаты

8.полупроводниковые фотоэлементы, преобразующие солнечную энергию

 

В) 1. применяя новые методы

2.     получив новые результаты

3.     увеличивая скорость

4.     открыв новый элемент

     5. устанавливая новое оборудование

6.     закончив эксперимент

     7. соединив два элемента

8.     производя новые приборы

 

Exercise 3. Translate the following word combinations.

 

1)           the body lifted, the body possessing, the condition achieved, the system isolating, the energy stored, the force measured, the student attending, the achieved results, the plant producing, the research made, the matter obtained, the substance applied

2)           determining the action, multiplying, having calculated the distance, receiving important information, having installed a new equipment, identifying the element, having determined the substance

 

Exercise 4. Participle I/Participle II. Choose the form of the Participle in each sentence.

                   A) Participle I                          B) Participle II

 

1.     The figures (mentioned, mentioning) in his report were published in the latest scientific journal. 2. The work (performed, performing) showed good results. 3. The type of the particle (emitted, emitting) depended not only on the binding energy. 4. (Being, been) more efficient than human beings computers are used more and more extensively. 5. When (translated, translating), his article on chemistry was sent to the International Chemical Congress. 6. What is he doing? – He is (translating, translated) some article from a foreign journal. 7. The data (obtaining, obtained) formed the basis for the further activity. 8. When (burning, burnt), coal produces heat. 10. The radar (used, using) was of a completely new design. 11. The substance (formed, forming) had all the necessary properties. 12. There are several types of furnaces which are used for metal (melted, melting).

 

Exercise 5. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the Participle.

 

1. Creating a new research institute we develop our science. 2. Testing the engine the engineer applied new methods. 3. The questions discussed at our conference are of great significance for the improvement of our scientific research. 4. You have to repair the broken part of that engine. 5. Hydrogen is the lightest element   known.  6. The temperature of the liquid   obtained   remained constant. 7. The explanation of many of the physical phenomena involved presents some difficulties.  8. The channel linking the two seas is being built now. 9. Nuclear fuel is undergoing nuclear fusion. 10. Being a semiconductor, germanium is widely used in transistors.

 

[edit][edit]Exercise 6. Read the following words. What are their prefixes? suffixes? Translate them.

 

inefficient, superconductor, non-conductor, simplify, waterless, promising, enlargement, interrelation, equality, abundantly, consumption, growth,  advantageous, renewable, unbalanced, inexpensive, conventional, reequip, enlarge

 

[edit][edit]Exercise 7. Translate the following groups of words.

 

rapid growth in energy consumption; a bigger punch; fuel resource; rapid rise of electrification; major fuel forms; natural gas; nuclear and renewable energy forms;  commercial and industrial enterprises; clean electricity; conventional power plant emissions; nuclear waste from atomic plants; solar, wind and biomass energy forms; wind turbines; world's energy demands; nature and physics of energy forms

 

[edit][edit]Exercise 8. Memorize the following words.

 

to abate – уменьшаться, слабеть, затихать, успокаиваться

to accept – принимать, принять, соглашаться

appliance – приспособление, прибор

conventional – обычный, условный

to decrease – уменьшаться

incentive (n) – побуждение

internal - внутренний

overwhelming – подавляющий

predecessor – предшественник,-ица

to proliferate – распространяться, размножаться

punch – удар, толчок, ударять

to rely – полагаться, положиться

renewable - возобновляемый

to spawn – порождать

to support – поддерживать, поддержать

to switch – переключать, переводить

waste – утечка, отбросы

waste products – отходы

to utilize – использовать, утилизировать

Text A[edit]

Energy 

Energy is the lifeblood of our nation. It powers our industries and keeps our economy humming. Our nation's progress has relied on making energy abundantly available to support the growth of new ideas and products. We should understand some of the basics of our energy history and the kinds of fuels that keep things working.

Our century-long, rapid growth in energy consumption has been chronicled by a move to more dense, or concentrated, energy forms. Our early predecessors burned wood. Our great-grandparents used coal, oil, and natural gas. We addressed the need for a rapid increase in energy growth with a bigger punch in a smaller package more energy per pound of fuel resource. This was a good strategy, and it still serves us well although it would be advantageous to decrease our dependence on foreign oil.

The rapid rise of electrification in our homes is a big factor in our energy consumption. This trend began with the great electrical inventions in the late 1800s, which spawned a proliferation of domestic appliances and commercial applications that continues unabated. VCRs, DVDs, personal computers, big screen TVs and microwave ovens are the most recent manifestations of our appetites for kitchen appliances and leisurely pursuits.

Our major fuel forms are coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear and some renewable energy forms, the most notable being hydropower. Electricity is made from these major fuel forms.

Today, we depend more on foreign oil than we did in the 70s, the time of the oil embargos. This oil dependency can be blamed directly on automobiles. Utilities switched from oil to nuclear power decades ago, and today they use natural gas. Many commercial and industrial enterprises also switched to natural gas. Cars consume the majority of imported oil. This makes the move toward more fuel-efficient and hybrid cars of major importance.

There is much interest in renewable energy use. Solar, wind and biomass create clean electricity without conventional power plant emissions or nuclear waste from atomic plants. If you look at the raw numbers, you will quickly realize that the sun showers the Earth with millions of times more energy than we use. But, while the fuel is free, the equipment to utilize it is not. It is the engineer's job to find the point where the desire to use solar energy can be balanced against the costs.

Solar, wind and biomass systems cost more than conventional forms of power generation and they add another dimension to the energy debate. Their usage is similar to using wood as a fuel. Renewable energy systems require large areas to support energy capture. Solar, wind and biomass energy forms over and on the surface of the Earth are rather weak. We must harvest this free, albeit weak, energy over large areas to make it useful. Such areas take the form of solar panels, the swept rotor area of wind turbines or combustible plant species farms. That's the nature and physics of energy forms. We cannot miniaturize the solar panels or concentrate the biomass or wind energy.

We use the energy sources we are willing to tolerate, are comfortable using and willing to pay for. It's a consensus process. What makes our current source so tough to replace is that they have remained quite inexpensive compared with the prices of renewable sources. There is not yet an overwhelming reason or incentive to make great changes in our energy sources. It takes decades to change the overall energy mix. New sources take years to be accepted and become a significant portion of the energy economy.

Our energy use especially electricity will continue to increase. Electricity is too convenient form of energy not to be innovated upon. What happens when population giants like China and India start reaching for higher standards of living, striving to live like Americans do? What then of the world's energy demands? Will that be an incentive for change? It will be interesting to be a part of those decisions!

(By Harry T. Roman

Source: Tech Directions, Apr2006, p19.)

 

Exercise 9. Answer the questions.

 

1.           Why energy is called “lifeblood” of our nation? 2. What sources of energy do you know? 3. What are our major fuel forms at present? 4. What sources of energy cannot be replaced when once used up?  5. What is a big factor in our energy consumption?  6. What sources of energy are continually being replaced?  7. What is the most   required form of energy?  8. How many forms of energy do you know? 9. Why is there much interest in renewable energy use?

 

Exercise 10. Put down the title corresponding to each of the given descriptions.

 

Electric energy, Kinetic energy, Chemical energy,

Radiant energy, Potential energy, Energy

 

1.  The energy transmitted in the form of radiation.

2.  That part of the energy stored within an atom or molecule which can be released by a chemical reaction.

3.  The capacity for doing work.

4.  The energy which body possesses by virtue of its position. It is measured by the amount of work the body performs in passing from that position to a standard position in which the energy is considered to be zero.

5.  The energy which body possesses by virtue of its motion.

6.  The energy associated with electric charges and their movements. It is measured in watt seconds (joules) or kilowatts-hours.

 

Exercise 11. Define which –ing and -ed forms are parts of predicates.

 

1. The measures discussed are to be used for determining the faults in the conducting wires. 2. The new materials recommended for plant construction were described in the article written by our professor. 3. The velocity of a reactor depends on the specific nature of the substances involved. 4. The transmission system selected for everyday use is based on the combined activity of telecommunication and computers. 5. Water-turbine plants are called hydro turbines. 6. The propeller accelerates the air passing through it thereby transforming engine into useful trust. 7. Gas coolants used to remove heat losses help to increase the current-carrying capacity of the motor’s main parts. 8. Water power is being used to drive a dynamo. 9. The substance affecting a magnetic field was metallic. 10. What problems are being discussed now? 11. At the end of May the engineers will be preparing for their experiments. 12. Today some engineers are working at the problem of developing electric power stations with the use of a thermal-chemical cycle.

 

Exercise 12. Fill in the blanks with the following words.

 

 thermodynamics, heat, energy, conversion,

degeneration, conservation, constant, mechanical, heat

 

1. The mechanical theory of heat states that ________ is a form of energy due to the motion or configuration of the molecules of a body. 2. Like _______ energy, heat energy may be of the kinetic or of the potential form. 3. Heat may be transferred either by conduction or by___________. 4. Every natural process is accompanied by thermodynamics _____________. 5. Heat may be converted into work and work into heat and in any such conversion the ratio of the work to heat being constant. 6. __________ deals with the conversion of mechanical energy into thermal energy and   the   reverse   process. 7. To transform energy from its numerous forms into ___________ is a comparatively simple process. 8. Heat is a form of __________ floating from one point to another.

  

Exercise 13. Translate the following sentences paying attention to Participle I/Participle II.

 

1. Выполненная работа показала хорошие результаты. 2. Сжигаемый  уголь, производит высокую температуру. 3. Закон, выраженный данной  формулой очень важен. 4. Измерив совершенную работу, инженер продолжил опыт. 5. Испытываемые  материалы различаются по своим свойствам. 6. Падая, тело теряет потенциальную энергию. 7. Тело, обладающее потенциальной энергией, может совершать работу. 8. Работая над усовершенствованием лампы накаливания, Эдисон сделал ряд важных экспериментов.  9. Наблюдая расположение атомов в твердом теле, можно лучше понять его свойства. 10. Данные, упомянутые в его сообщении, были изданы в последнем номере научного журнала. 11. Зная эту величину, вы можете решить это уравнение. 12. По окончании проект должен удовлетворять всем  техническим  требованиям. 13. Результаты, полученные в нашей лаборатории, опубликованы в ежемесячном журнале. 14. Полученные результаты были различными в зависимости от использованного материала.

 

 

 

Exercise 14. Read the text and find mistakes in each line. If the line is correct put a tick ü if not, write down the mistake.

 

The Law of Conservation energy of means that no energy can _____

be creator or destroyed in any physical effects or transformations.     _____

It has showned however that matter can be converted into energy       _____

of radiation and that therefore the Law of Conservation of                 _____

energy and includes or implies also the conservation of mass. The     _____

fact that mass and energy can be changed one into another has                    _____

given us means to explain the source by the energy radiated by          _____

the Sun for untold billions years of. It is from the melting away         _____

of the Sun’s mass into radiation by degrees.                                               _____

        

Exercise 15.  Translate the following supplementary text.

 

Renewable energy

 

Renewable energy effectively uses natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides and geothermal heat, which are naturally replenished. Renewable energy technologies range from solar power, wind power, hydroelectricity/micro hydro, biomass and biofuels for transportation.

In 2006, about 18 percent of global final energy consumption came from renewables, with 13% coming from traditional biomass, like wood-burning. Hydropower was the next largest renewable source, providing 3%, followed by hot water/heating which contributed 1.3%. Modern technologies, such as geothermal, wind, solar, and ocean energy together provided some 0.8% of final energy consumption. The technical potential for their use is very large, exceeding all other readily available sources.

Renewable energy technologies are sometimes criticized for being unreliable or unsightly, yet the market is growing for many forms of renewable energy. Wind power has a worldwide installed capacity of over 100 GW and is widely used in several European countries and the USA. The manufacturing output of the photovoltaic industry reached more than 2,000 MW per year in 2006, and PV power plants are particularly popular in Germany. Solar thermal power stations operate in the USA and Spain, and the largest of these is the 354 MW SEGS power plant in the Mojave Desert. The world's largest geothermal power installation is The Geysers in California, with a rated capacity of 750 MW. Brazil has one of the largest renewable energy programs in the world, involving production of ethanol fuel from sugar cane, and ethanol now provides 18 percent of the country's automotive fuel. Ethanol fuel is also widely available in the USA.

While there are many large-scale renewable energy projects, renewable technologies are also suited to small off-grid applications, sometimes in rural and remote areas, where energy is often crucial in human development. Kenya has the world's highest household solar ownership rate with roughly 30,000 small (20–100 watt) solar power systems sold per year.

Climate change concerns coupled with high oil prices, peak oil and increasing government support are driving increasing renewable energy legislation, incentives and commercialization. European Union leaders reached an agreement in principle in March 2007 that 20 percent of their nations' energy should be produced from renewable fuels by 2020, as part of its drive to cut emissions of carbon dioxide, blamed in part for global warming. Investment capital flowing into renewable energy climbed from $80 billion in 2005 to a record $100 billion in 2006. This level of investment combined with continuing double digit percentage increases each year has moved what once was considered alternative energy to mainstream. Wind was the first to provide 1% of electricity, but solar is not far behind. Some very large corporations such as BP, General Electric, Sharp, and Royal Dutch Shell are investing in the renewable energy sector.

 

Exercise 16. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the Participle Construction. 

 

1. When testing the engine the engineer applied new methods. 2. When subjected to high pressure, aluminium loses its strength. 3. Unless heated, this substance does not melt. 4. The relative density of a gas is equal to the molecular weight of the other gas being used as the standard. 5. The volume of gases entering into or resulting from a chemical reaction may be represented by a simple ratio of small numbers. 6. While isolating and separating radium, Mary Curie found other radioactive elements. 7. Counting the net charges on each atom of these two compounds, the following scheme is obtained. 8. Having described in a general way what is meant by an electric current, the next step is to introduce quantitative measures for such currents and their effects. 9. Having obtained the necessary compound, we could finish our experiment. 10. When heated up to the certain temperatures aluminium expands much more than cast iron. 11. Having accepted this set of laws, we can predict many things about the union of chemical substances. 12. Having become familiar with the main laws of statics, we can study the laws of dynamics.

 

Exercise 17.  Speak about: “Non-traditional renewable sources of energy”.

 

Use the following words and word combinations for your topic:

traditional and non-traditional power sources,  promising research, solar energy, solar power station, geothermal energy,  energy of hydrogen, efficiency, wind energy, effects on environment, atomic energy, advantages and disadvantages  of solar power, thermonuclear reaction, unlimited source of energy

 

 

Unit 3

Grammar: The Absolute Participle Construction.

 

1.       The problem having been solved, the engineers began a new experiment.

Когда проблема была решена, инженеры начали новый эксперимент.

2.       With the weather falling rapidly and the wind getting stronger, we were not able to carry on scientific investigations.

Так как температура быстро падала и ветер становился сильнее, мы не в состоянии были проводить научные изыскания.

 

Exercise 1. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the Absolute Participle Construction.

 

1. The experiment having been over, the engineer left the laboratory.     2. The Sun being near the zenith, its rays are nearly vertical.  3. There are different sources of energy, the sun being an unlimited source of all forms of energy. 4. The current low having been changed, the direction of the magnetic lines of force changed as well. 5. The name electronics is known to be derived from the word “electron”, the electron itself being the basic unit of negative electricity. 6. The temperature of an object being raised, the velocity of electrons increase. 7. Electrons moving through a wire, electrical energy is generated. 8. Soon the aircraft exploded in the air and broke into several pieces, two of them falling in flames.  9. Different types of contact materials for current collectors having being discussed, engineers chose steel and copper as being best.

 

Exercise 2. Define which of the sentences contain the Absolute Participle Construction?

 

1. Water exists as an ice at low temperatures and as steam at higher temperatures, with the temperature depending upon pressure. 2. Having been impregnated, paper is used as resistor. 3. Other factors being constant, the current is known to be directly proportional to conductivity. 4. What is an electric arc? It is a discharge accompanied by a temperature of over 3,000°C, produced when an electric current flows through a gap between two electrodes, the current being carried by the vapour of the electrode. 5. The reflected signal having been received, the distance to the object was counted. 6. Having been tested, the motor was mounted at its place in the machine. 7. Most solid substances are crystalline, their crystalline structure being often obvious even to the naked eye. 8. The analyses which   had been   made in   the laboratory confirmed the   hypotheses. 9. When a liquid metallic alloy is cooled into the solid state, a metallic glass is formed.

 

Exercise 3. Word formation. Distribute into four columns.

 

Example:       What?     What kind of?    What to do?     How?

possible, numerous, number, carelessly, impossibility, faulty, consumer, commonly, resistant, resistivity, resistance, resist, difference, differ, different, equally, equality, equal, overestimate, additional, useful, fail, failure, insulator, mainly, efficient, generate, generation, capacity, directly, direction, different

 

Exercise 4. Read and translate the following word combinations.

 

the materials tested required, the work performed showed, the results  obtained showed, the problem solved proved, the substances decomposed proved, the experiments discussed proved, the results obtained required, the device tested required, the programme discussed applied, the method used showed

 

Exercise 5. Find word combinations which cannot be predicates.

 

is calculating, having developed, introducing, launching, determining, having determined, has replaced, is introducing, have pointed, have been obtained, to decide, applied, being approached, occurring, having calculated, has produced, is required, being indicated, is being referred to, being modified, was being subdivided, has produced, has been creating, accelerating, are speeding, being considered, will be expressed, have introduced, having projected,

 

Exercise 6. Translate the following word combinations.

 

wind or moving air, conversion of mechanical energy, thermal energy, reverse process of transforming heat, production of heat by mechanical means, phenomenon of friction, compressing gas, operation of a steam or gas engine, internal combustion engines, actual physical process, frictional effect, quantity of available energy, energy demand, conventional carbon-bearing energy sources, secure and affordable energy supplies, exploration techniques, annual production, recovery technologies,  end-usage of energy, new resources of conventional fuels, carbon-bearing reserves, reserve-to-production ratios, heavy-oil or oil shale fuels, widely distributed data capture, to enhance oil recovery technologies, to reduce annual production of CO2

 

Exercise 7. Memorize the following words.

       

to afford – позволять, предоставлять, доставлять

byproduct – побочный продукт

to conserve – сохранять, сохранить

conversion - превращение

combustion – горение

deposit – месторождение

to emit - испускать, излучать

emission – испускание, излучение

to evolve – развивать(ся), развить(ся)

fossil – ископаемый

fuel –топливо, горючее

to intend – намереваться, собраться, предназначать

oil wells – нефтяные скважины

to perceive -  воспринимать, воспринять

prominence – возвышение, выпуклость, известность

to pulverize - размельчать, сокрушать

to reduce – уменьшать, сжимать,  сокращать, приводить

recoveryполучение обратно

to restrict -  ограничивать

retention – удержание, сохранение

steam - пар

subterranean - подземный

upland – гористая часть страны, нагорный

Text A

Future Energy

 

The need for new approaches to energy research:

There exist many sources of energy in the world both potential and kinetic.[edit] One source consists in water falling from a high level such as an upland lake. Another source is wind or moving air. Others consist in tides in the sea, heat from subterranean sources and coal deposits and oil wells yielding mineral oil. A very important mater is the conversion of energy from one form to another.

The first source of energy which man made serve him was the energy of fire. Many thousand years passed before man learned how to use another source of energy – water, then man made steam serve him; and then man had another servant – electricity. At that time it was impossible to imagine anything more perfect than electricity.  But man would not and did not stop at electricity; he discovered another source of energy, many times more powerful - the atomic energy.

What will man have in future? What kind of energy will he be trying to use?

Secure and affordable energy supplies are vital for economic and social development. Existing drivers and by-product of economic and social development increase demand for energy, most noticeably in countries and industrial prominence. As a result, world demand for energy is rising steadily. Known reserves of conventional carbon-bearing energy sources, largely oil and gas are being extended with new discoveries, but they are generally in geologically and geopolitically more difficult areas. Increases in annual production to meet demand will outstrip extensions to reserves and reserve-to-production ratios will fall, in some cases to single figures, in the most industrialised countries. Reserves of coal may last much longer as a future electricity-generating fuel, for instance in excess of 200 years in USA, but coal emits more CO2 than oil and gas as do heavy-oil or oil shale fuels. Advances in exploration techniques and further exploitation of mature oil and fields with enhanced oil recovery technologies may increase the known carbon-bearing reserves and security of these fuel sources. However, even if these additional reserves were adequately to increase security of supplies, their combustion would add to the already rising CO2 volume in the atmosphere unless effective and economical carbon sequestration techniques were to be applied on strategic scale.

Climate change and its effects may be partly attributed to increased atmospheric CO2 concentrations and the Kyoto protocol seeks to reduce annual production of CO2. As a group, the EU agreed to reduce its emissions by 8% below 1990 levels for the first Kyoto commitment period between 2008 and 2012/ Within this, the UK must reduce its CO2 emissions by 12, 5 % and has set a domestic ambition of component of the basket of emissions requires the volume of carbon in the energy supply chain to be lowered, primarily in the transport and electricity production sectors. Demand reduction is most effective since energy 'not used' reduces carbon flows all the way down the energy supply chain and conserves the hydrocarbon resource. There may be limited expectations of demand reduction in the short term since this is perceived to restrict industrial growth, social development, and personal lifestyles. However, some demand reduction could be enabled by: improving fuel use and efficiency; heat and electricity demand management; greater deployment of micro-generation and industrial combined heat and power plants. Successful operation and monitoring of such an evolved end-usage of energy will depend on advances in widely distributed data capture, processing, and communication. Enabling economic and social growth and also meeting future demand for energy in an environmentally and economically sustainable manner present significant global and local challenge. Demand must be reduced where possible, existing and new resources of conventional fuels must be used more prudently, and alternative sources of energy must be developed into commercial viability.                                                                                            

                                                                                                  (By A.Robin Wallace

Source:Towards 2020 Science, Microsoft Research, 2006, p.65-66)

 

Exercise 8. Answer the questions.

 

1. What were the first sources of energy?  2. Is electricity more perfect source of energy than the previous ones? 3. What source of energy was discovered at the end of the 19th century? 4. What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of alternative sources of energy? 5. What source of energy more powerful than electricity? 6. What kind of energy will man be trying to use in future?

 

Exercise 9. Read and translate the following sentences paying attention to the Absolute Participle Construction.

 

1. The problem having been solved, the engineers began a new experiment. 2. The plan having been discussed, the meeting was over. 3. This law having been discovered, there are a lot of new possibilities. 4. The engineer having come, the experiment began. 5. The strain of the body exceeding a certain value, the body does not recover completely. 6. A body is under hydrostatic stress, the pressure upon it on all sides being the same. 7. A body is under tensile stress, the forces acting upon it tending to increase its length. 8. Technology having reached a high stage of development, new methods of work became possible. 9. Iron and sulphur being ground together, a greenish-black powder is obtained. 10. An external force acting, the body changes its state of rest to a state of motion. 11. The elastic properties of various materials are different, the ratio of stress to strain being always the same for a given material within the elastic limit.

[edit][edit]Exercise 10. Translate into English.

 

1. Так как задание было очень трудное, студенты не смогли его выполнить. 2. Когда студент переводил эту статью, он встретил много новых слов. 3. Теплота может быть превращена в работу, причем отношение теплоты к работе  не рассматривается. 4. После того как были получены новые данные, испытываемые материалы были использованы в промышленности. 5. Выполненная работа может быть вычислена по данному уравнению, а потери не рассматриваются. 6. При любой схеме подается постоянное напряжение, причем величина зарядного тока  определяется разностью между приложенным напряжением и напряжением элемента, деленной на внутреннее сопротивление элемента. 7.После того как опыты были закончены, мы начали новые исследования. 8. Если асинхронный двигатель имеет высокий коэффициент полезного действия, то мощность  потребления будет лишь немного больше, чем мощность на валу.

 

         Exercise 11. Complete the crossword and find the key word.

 

 

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

2

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

3

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

4

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

5

 

 

 

 

6

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

         1. energy that is produced when the temperature of something changes

         2. the process in which atoms combine to form nuclear energy

         3. a very small group of atoms that form a particular substance

         4. a rise in number, amount or degree of something

         5. a substance such as air that is neither a solid nor a liquid

         6. the set of general principles that a particular subject is based on

                            Key word _____________________

 

Exercise 12. Translate the following sentences, paying attention to the words in italics.

 

  1. Энергия имеет две формы: потенциальную и кинетическую энергию.  2. Кинетическая энергия, которой обладает тело, зависит от его массы. 3. Когда студенты измерили теплоту, накопленную в этой системе, они получили интересные результаты. 4. Имея дело с этим необратимым процессом, ученые рассматривают всю энергию, присущую данной системе.  5. Очень важный вопрос для человечества - преобразование энергии из одной формы в другую.  6. Устройства  для преобразования энергии из одной формы в другую называются двигателями.

 

Exercise 13. Read and translate the following supplementary text.

 

Text B[edit]

Fossil fuels                                         

 

Fossil fuels, in terms of energy, involve the burning of coal or hydrocarbon fuels, which are the remains of the decomposition of plants and animals. There are three main types of fossil fuels: coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Another fossil fuel, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), is principally derived from the production of natural gas. Heat from burning fossil fuel is used either directly for space heating and process heating, or converted to mechanical energy for vehicles, industrial processes, or electrical power generation.

Pros

·   The technology and infrastructure already exist for the use of fossil fuels (although oil and natural gas are approaching peak production, and will require a transition to other fuels and/or other measures).

·   Commonly-used fossil fuels in liquid form such as light crude oil, gasoline, and LPG are easy to distribute.

·   Petroleum energy density in terms of volume (cubic space) and mass (weight) is superior to some alternative energy sources (or energy storage devices, like a battery (electricity)). Energy density is important in land-and-air transportation fuel tanks.

Cons

·   Petroleum-powered vehicles are very inefficient. Only about 15% of the energy from the fuel they consume is converted into useful motion. The rest of the fuel-source energy is inefficiently expended as waste heat. The heat and gaseous pollution emissions harm our environment.

·   The inefficient atmospheric combustion (burning) of fossil fuels in vehicles, buildings, and power plants contributes to urban heat islands.

·   The combustion of fossil fuels leads to the release of pollution into the atmosphere. According to the Union of Concerned Scientists, a typical coal plant produces in one year:

ü 3,700,000 tons of carbon dioxide (CO2), the primary cause of global warming.

ü 10,000 tons of sulfur dioxide (SO2), the leading cause of acid rain.

ü 500 tons of small airborne particles, which result in chronic bronchitis, aggravated asthma, and premature death, in addition to haze-obstructed visibility.

ü 10,200 tons of nitrogen oxides (NOx), (from high-temperature atmospheric combustion), leading to formation of ozone (smog) which inflames the lungs, burning lung tissue making people more susceptible to respiratory illness.

ü 720 tons of carbon monoxide (CO), resulting in headaches and additional stress on people with heart disease.

ü 220 tons of hydrocarbons, toxic volatile organic compounds (VOC), which form ozone.

ü 170 pounds of mercury, where just 1/70th of a teaspoon deposited on a 25 acre lake can make the fish unsafe to eat.

ü 225 pounds of arsenic, which will cause cancer in one out of 100 people who drink water containing 50 parts per billion.

ü 114 pounds of lead, 4 pounds of cadmium, other toxic heavy metals, and trace amounts of uranium.

·   Dependence on fossil fuels from volatile regions or countries creates energy security risks for dependent countries. Oil dependence in particular has led to war, major funding of radical terrorists, monopolization, and socio-political instability.

·   Fossil fuels are non-renewable, un-sustainable resources, which will eventually decline in production and become exhausted, with dire consequences to societies that remain highly dependent on them. (Fossil fuels are actually slowly forming continuously, but we are using them up at a rate approximately 100,000 times faster than they are formed.)

 

Exercise 14. Choose the words that fit best each space.

 

Fusion: the fire some time

 

Fusion is the gaudiest of hopes, the 1_______ of the stars in the human hearth. 2____________ when two atoms fuse into one, fusion energy could satisfy huge chunks of future 3____________. The fuel would last millennia. Fusion would produce no long-lived 4______________ waste and nothing for terrorists or governments to turn into weapons. It also requires some of the most complex machinery on Earth.

A few scientists have claimed that cold fusion, which promises 5___________ from a simple jar instead of a high-tech crucible, might work. The verdict so far: No such luck. Hot fusion is more likely to succeed, but it will be a decades-long quest costing billions of dollars.

Hot fusion is tough because the 6________ a kind of hydrogen has to be 7__________ to a hundred million degrees Celsius or so before the atoms start fusing. At those temperatures the hydrogen 8_________ a roiling, unruly vapor of electrically charged particles, called plasma. "Plasma is the most common state of matter in the universe," says one physicist, "but it's also the most chaotic and the least easily controlled?" Creating and containing plasma is so challenging that no fusion 9____________ has yet returned more than 65 percent of the energy it took to start the 10_____________.

 

1.       A. glitter               B. power              C. fire                   D. heat

2.       A. made                B. improved                   C. developed        D. produced

3.       A. demand           B. source              C. utilization          D. standard

4.       A. changeable       B. sufficient          C. radioactive       D. modified

5.       A. technology       B. development     C. energy              D. insulation

6.       A. fusion              B. fuel                  C. base                 D. reserve

7.       A. heated              B. raised               C. condensed       D. combined

8.       A. forms               B. creates             C. gives                D. damages

9.       A. case                 B. range                C. system             D. experiment

10.     A. project             B. reaction            C. potential           D. section

 

Exercise 15. Investigation.

 

Imagine that you are the journalist. You are going to write a magazine article about the future energy sources.

The plan below can help you:

ü    Your article should include information, description, your own opinions or arguments.

ü    The key to writing a good article is that it must attract the reader’s attention.

ü    Think about how to make your article interesting and different.

ü    Organize the article into paragraphs.

 

Unit 4

Grammar: Modal Verbs

 

Modal Verbs

Examples

1.Can (способность или физическая возможность совершения действия)

negative form: cannot

past form: could

ú I can bring the equipment here.

ú I can speak English very well.

ú I can find some additional information for the report.

2. May (разрешение или возможность, вероятность)

negative form:

past form: might

ú You may do this work today.

ú You may take my pen if yours does not write.

3. Must (долженствование)

negative form: must not

ú These questions must be answered at once.

ú You must come to the conference, you promised me.

ú He must be at the reading hall now.

4. Should (долженствование, моральный долг или совет)

negative form: should not

ú Tools should always be kept clean.

ú You should help him to prepare the laboratory for the experiment.

5. To have to, to be to, to be obliged to, ought to (долженствование)

ú I had to work hard as I had a lot of exams to pass.

ú She was to come to the classes but she didn’t.

ú I was obliged to do this work till tomorrow.

ú You ought to visit professor, he need to help with the research work.

 

Exercise 1. Translate and compare the differences.

 

1. Atomic energy finds such wide application that our age might/can be called the age of atom. 2. But this new kind of fuel has to/is be handled very carefully. 3. The heat from the nuclear chain reactor can/is to be removed by the coolant. 4. The electric field can be/may be thought of as consisting of a number of lines of force. 5. The device is faulty; you cannot/should not rely on its readings. 6. Nowadays one must/can connect power stations into power grids. 7. The current must/should be as small as possible not to melt the wires. 8. Every explorer in any brunch of science must/may carry out experiments. 9. The conference may/must find a solution to the problem. 10. You should/must try to find out all the essential facts connected with his scientific work. 11. The team of experts should/is to study the present situation in the country.

 

Exercise 2. Read and translate the following word combinations.

 

unpredictable energy, environmentally clean energy,  sky power,  sun radiation, bottomless fountain of energy, modern alternative energy technology,  sun-heated steam engines, vital discovery,  solar electric panel,  solar photovoltaic panel, annual sunshine hours, horizon-to-horizon sunshine, solar inflow, temperature sensitive silicon photovoltaic cells, high latitude installations

 

Exercise 3. Memorize following words.

to ablaze – сверкать, be ~ гореть

adjacentсмежный, соседний

advantage – преимущество, выгода, польза

array – совокупность, антенна, антенная решетка

to collect – собирать, собрать

collector – коллектор

coating - покрытие

to drop – снижаться, падать, упасть, опускать

eruption – извержение, взрыв

implement – инструмент (принадлежности –мн.ч.)

to implement – выполнять

exposure – подвергание, выдержка

to interfere – мешать, вмешиваться

to involve – вовлекать, включать

fluctuation - колебание

load – нагрузка, груз

obstruction - препятствие

to provide – снабжать, обеспечивать, предоставлять

to refine – очищать, очистить

to swing – качаться, колебаться

vital – жизненный, существенный

volcanic – вулканический

 

Text A[edit]

Sky Power 

With unpredictable energy costs and a greater consciousness for environmentally clean energy, people are viewing sky power with greater interest. The sky above us provides many things: a sunny spring day, blazing sunsets year-round and fuel for powering modern life. The radiation of the sun and the movement of the air present an almost bottomless fountain of energy, just waiting to be tapped. Modern alternative energy technology allows people around the globe to take advantage of these energy sources.

Humans have been utilizing weather as a power source for thousands of years, starting with the sail on a boat. Persian engineers developed windmill-driven pumps and grain grinders during the years 500 through 900 A.D. The first large scale, wind-driven electricity generators made their debut in 1888 in Cleveland, Ohio. Since that time, engineers have continued to refine wind turbine electricity generators, eking out ever greater levels of efficiency.

The first solar power projects were developed during the industrial revolution, when sun-heated steam engines powered a number of factories. The French physicist Antoine-Cesar Becquerel made the vital discovery in 1839 of the photoelectric effect, a phenomenon in which incoming light energy generates an electric current, laying the earliest foundation for the development of the modern solar electric panel. Sunlight to  electricity research took a quantum leap in 1941 when American scientist Russell Ohl invented the silicon solar cell.

Standing on the shoulders of these early discoveries are the modern implements of wind and sun power-tools that manufacturers are churning out in growing numbers, including high efficiency solar panels, wind turbines of all sizes, and support implements such as charge controllers and diagnostic equipment. In short, solar photovoltaic panels convert sunlight into electricity and wind turbines convert moving air into electricity.

In most places on the globe today, the question is often not one of availability, but one of reliability due to the whims of the weather: "Is it windy enough for a turbine?" "Is it too cloudy here for solar panels?"

"Solar radiation patterns around the globe are our most reliable and predictable resource," Tim Townsend, an alternative energy specialist based out of Davis, California, said. "Geometrically, every part of the globe gets exactly one half year's worth of sunshine each and every year-that's 4,380 hours [365 days multiplied by 12 hours per day] of the sun being above the horizon." But, as Townsend noted, that is just the theoretical number of annual sunshine hours. An area's weather determines how much of that energy actually reaches the solar panels on the ground.

Solar power experts like Townsend view the earth a bit differently than most people. They do not look at land as sandy, rocky, steep, or flat, but in terms of how much sun a piece of ground can collect, on average, each day. Known as "hours of peak sunshine per day," this is essentially a "sunniness quotient" (or a cloudiness quotient, depending on your location) the more cloud-prone an area, the lower this number. Likewise, higher numbers indicate days upon days of sunny blue sky.

On balance, the earth's desert regions tip the solar scales with the highest average number of peak sunshine hours of all the world's climates but skies ideal for solar panels do not always impart comfortable conditions for those who use their electricity. "The majority of the U.S. population lives in areas that have, on average, 20 percent fewer peak sunshine hours per year than 'hot spots', Townsend said.  On average in the United States, someone can expect to get from three and a half to five and a half hours per day of peak sunshine throughout the year, with Chicago on the low end, Sacramento, California, in the middle, and Santa Fe, New Mexico, on the high end.

Weather considerations for sunshine-to-electricity do not end with an analysis of average cloudiness and peak sunshine hours. Engineers have other factors to toss into their solar-success formulae. One variable is the type of solar panel used.

Another consideration is the average daily temperature and potential daily and seasonal temperature fluctuations of an area in which photovoltaics (solar panel cells that convert incoming sunlight into electric current) are to be installed. Silicon solar cells work most effectively in cold regions and in areas windy enough to convectively cool them. Climes ablaze with year-round, horizon-to-horizon sunshine, while abundant with solar inflow, can inhibit performance of the temperature sensitive silicon photovoltaic cells. For instance, solar panels located on a high, cool but sunny mountain slope will perform better than those located on an equally sunny but warmer lowland desert locale.

 (By Ed Darack

Source: Weatherwise, Nov/Dec2005, Vol. 58 Issue 6, p30, 6p, 5c.

Item Number: 18681873)

 

Exercise 4. Read the text B. Define the main problems raised in the texts A and B. What are the author's conclusions? What is your own opinion?

 

Text B

Converting Sunlight to Electricity

 

A photovoltaic panel can convert sunlight directly into electricity. If you connect enough of them in a series-parallel arrangement called a solar array, you can provide about half of a home's annual electricity needs. They do take up quite a bit of space generally roof area but can also be mounted on the ground adjacent to a home if roof space is not available.

The panels comprise specially treated electronic materials that when exposed to sunlight will give up electrons freely, and these can be made to flow through an external circuit to provide electricity. High-strength glass or plastic usually covers the delicate electronic materials or coatings. The number of panels used for a specific application depends on the power requirements (kW) needed. In much the same way that batteries are connected into a series-parallel arrangement to deliver both voltage and current to a load, photovoltaic panels are similarly wired together.

How much electrical energy (kWh) a solar system can collect is a function of where it sits on the earth's surface, which determines how much sunshine it receives. Ideally, a solar array should be situated so it faces south and tilted at an angle that allows it to collect the most energy available. That southern exposure should be as free of obstructions and shadowing as possible. Let's take a closer look at some of the practical concerns involved.

First, we'll consider some orientation possibilities for our solar array. We could lay it flat so there is no angle or maybe support it in a vertical position. We could also give it a specific tilt. Generally, solar designers use a tilt angle that equals the latitude of the geographic site where the solar system will be located.

The amount of total yearly energy collected is also quite different for the various tilt angles:


0°                         5091 kWh

90°                       3958 kWh

latitude (40°)         5974 kWh

latitude +10°         5839 kWh

latitude −10°         5983 kWh


These calculations show that it is probably best to tilt the collectors at the latitude of the site, or perhaps about 10° less. This tilt angle yields 17 percent more energy year round than the 0° case and 51 percent more than the 90° case. These kinds of calculations must be done for every solar system installed. In this example, I used a 4 kW solar system design, located in New York. Computerized programs exist to make these calculations quite easy to perform.

Keep in mind that the amount of sun a solar system receives can vary quite a bit. Yearly weather patterns, cloud conditions, proximity to cities or industrial areas and nearby bodies of water can easily swing the performance of a solar system 10 to 20 percent. Larger climate differences or such events as volcanic eruptions can put enough dust in the air to interfere with solar collection.

(By Harry T. Roman

Source: Tech Directions, Oct2005, Vol. 65 Issue 3, p24, 2p)

 

Exercise 5. Answer the questions.

 

1. Why people are viewing sky power with greater interest?  2. With what things the sky provides us?  3. Who considered solar radiation as our most reliable and predictable source of energy? 4. How the weather may affect to the usage of solar energy? 5. What does the solar panel comprise?  6. How much electrical energy (kWh) a solar system can collect? 7. What are the possibilities of solar array? 

 

Exercise 6. Find in the text English equivalents to the following words and word combinations.

фотогальваническая панель, специально обработанные электронные материалы, солнечные электрические системы, получать энергию солнца, преобразовать солнечную энергию в электричество, солнечная решетка, электронные материалы, внешняя цепь,   стекло высокой прочности, напряжение и ток, наклоненный угол, вулканический взрыв, солнечная система, солнечный коллектор

 

Exercise 7. Fill in the gaps with the right modal verbs.

 

  1. You ……… to repair the equipment in five days. 2. I …..… see some new machines when I visited your factory. 3. Such defects ….… easily lead to a serious breakdown of the machine. 4. The problem …….. be solved in two different ways. 5. The pressure of the ice ….… have caused considerable damage to the vessel’s hull. 6. I …….. translate these texts, they are too difficult. 7. The nuclear energy …..… be used for the good of mankind. 8. The experts admit that the devices ……… have been damaged in transit. 9. He ……….to use the new mobile equipment. 10. He ………to go to London on business. 11. You …….. follow all the important scientific researches in your field. 12. Motors and generators brought in at the receiving section …….. first be given visual inspection.

 

Exercise 8. Translate the words in brackets to make the sentences complete. Give definitions of the words in brackets.

 

1. The sun   (излучает)   to out       planet   great       amounts        of energy. 2. Environmentally and economically, the Sun is our greatest (энергетический источник).  3. (Солнечные станции) will produce cheap electric energy in the near future. 4. Solar energy arrives in (небольших количествах) – only about one kW per square meter, it does not arrive at all during night hours. 5. It is very difficult (преобразовывать) solar energy into useful energy forms. 6. Solar energy is considered to be a potentially (безграничный) source of clean energy. 7. Men have tried to use solar energy since earliest times, but no means existed to generate (полезную энергию) from the Sun’s heat until (паровые двигатели) were invented.  

 

Exercise 9. Find the words to the definitions. The first letter is given.

 

1. a number of pieces of equipment of the same type, connected together to do a particular job ~ a _ _ _ _

2. not covered or hidden and therefore able to be seen ~ e _ _ _ _ _ _ _

3. a part of atom that moves around the nucleus ~ e _ _ _ _ _ _ _

4. a complete path that an electric current flows around ~ c _ _ _ _ _ _

5. a thin layer that covers something ~ c _ _ _ _ _ _

6. the amount of  power in an electric current, measured in volts ~ v _ _ _ _ _ _

7. an equipment that changes light to electricity ~ p_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ c _ _ _

8. how near something is to another thing (in distance or time) ~ p _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

 

Exercise 10. Read and translate the following sentences, paying attention to the use of modal verbs.

1. They ought to have paid more attention to the problem of fuel consumption.  2. Such defects of device are to be regarded as quite objectionable. 3. However, several problems should be mentioned but these will not be discussed in detail. 3. Chemical compounds are pure substances which can, by ordinary chemical means, be separated or decomposed into different elements, or which can be made by combining different elements. 4. A number of scientific problems were to be solved in connection with the construction of a network of electrotransmission line. 5. In order to compare the toughness of different materials, both microstructural condition and strength level must be considered simultaneously. 6. Some mistakes must have been made in assembling the parts of the machine. 7. It may be observed that when the water of a pan of brine is evaporated by boiling, crystals of salt remain on the bottom of the vessel. 8. If the vapor is allowed to cool, it passes directly back into the solid state. 9. In chemistry, rates of reactions may determine whether a particular chemical reaction will actually yield a particular product. 10. Distillation can also be used to separate two or more liquids which are mixed together. 11. Low carbon and microalloyed steels can achieve excellent values of strength and fatigue resistance with this cheap and simple heat treatment. 12. According to the equilibrium conditions, the hydrogen gas and oxygen gas, when mixed, should react to form water again.

 

Exercise 11. Put down the title corresponding to each of the given descriptions.

 

Feeder, Commutator, Converter, Accumulator, Cell, Primary Cell, Solar Cell

 

1.  A machine which operates by means of rotating commutator to convert a.c. into d.c. for distribution.

2.  In an electric distributing system, a supply conductor carrying current from a power house to main conductors, and not itself connected to motors, lamps, or translating devices.

3.  A device for changing the direction of a current.

4.  Device for producing an electric current by chemical reaction.

5.  A storage battery. A device for “storing” electricity. An electric current is passed between two plates in a liquid; this causes chemical changes in the plates and the liquid. When the changes are complete, the device is charged.

6.  Semiconductor devices which are made from thin slices of silicon. The efficiency of the cells is no more than 10%, they provide a reliable electric power source that lasts for years on a satellite.

7.  A device for producing an electromotive force and delivering an electric current as the result of a chemical reaction.

 

Exercise 12. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of solar energy using information of the texts A and B. Speak on “Harnessing solar energy”.

 

Exercise 13. Read the following extract from the article. Choose the information close to the subject considered and write the précis of it.

 

Solar Energy Industry Powers Up

 

The grid-connected solar photovoltaic (PV), a technology that converts sunlight into electricity, is now the fastest growing energy technology in the world. According to the Worldwatch Institute, grid-connected solar PV grew in existing capacity from 0.16 GW at the start of 2000 to 1.8 GW by the end of 2004, for a 60 percent average annual growth rate during the five-year period. "In the next 10 years, solar power will be a major market force for lower-end electric power needs;' says Scott Sklar, president of The Stella Group, Ltd., a strategic marketing and policy firm for clean distributed energy users and companies.

Around the world, there are a growing number of commercial and public demonstrations of building-integrated solar PV. In New York City, the 4 Times square building uses PV panels to supplement its electrical needs, supplying up to 15 kW of power. The rooftop of the Engineering building at the University of Reading in the UK consists of 111 polycrystalline silicon PV modules that are connected to a 4 kW inverter. To date, more than 400,000 homes in Japan, Germany and the United States have rooftops with solar PV.

Solar electric systems catch energy directly from the sun no fire, no emissions. Some labs and companies are trying out the grown-up version of a child's magnifying glass: giant mirrored bowls or troughs to concentrate the sun's rays, producing heat that can drive a generator. But for now, sun power mostly means solar cells. The idea is simple: Sunlight falling on a layer of semiconductor jostles electrons, creating a current. Yet the cost of the cells, once astronomical, is still high.

 

Exercise 14. Choose the words that fit best each space.   

 

Solar is the Solution!

 

The free power that shines on Earth from the sun is virtually 1___________ the energy humans currently use in an entire year is less than the solar energy that strikes our 2___________ every hour.

Solar-powered mowers and tractors converted conventional gas-engine 3_____________ to run on electric motors driven by 4___________ that can be 5____________ from solar panels. These tractors and mowers delight their creators because solar-electric power not only makes them less 6____________ on ever-more-expensive, mostly imported petroleum, it also reduces their 7___________ of the greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming.

We think that within the next few years, clean, quiet, ultra-efficient all-electric solar-charged cars will 8___________ and those consumers will love them. A century ago, electric automobiles were more common than gas cars.

Solar home design has been around for thousands of years. It's time to head back to the future! In the United States today, private transportation plus residential 9______________ and cooling account for at least half of our 10____________ of fossil fuels. Embracing solar-electric cars and solar home design will go a long way toward 11__________ our dependence on imported oil and averting the environmental consequences of greenhouse gas emissions and it will save us all money along the way. It's a win-win-win plan for a more secure future.

 

1.       A. changeable       B. proportional     C. limitless            D. quantitative

2.       A. planet               B. turbine              C. world               D. mankind

3.       A. installation        B. transmitter        C. conductor        D. equipment

4.       A. resistors           B. oscillators         C. batteries           D. receivers

5.       A. recharged         B. constructed      C. supported        D. utilized

6.       A. developed        B. dependent        C. efficient            D. required

7.       A. emissions         B. refuses             C. wastes              D. utilities

8.       A. rearrange          B. retain                C. reduce              D. reappear

9.       A. reflection          B. heating             C. system             D. stability

10.     A. improvement    B. development     C. consumption    D. solution

11.     A. reducing           B. transferring       C. surpassing        D. leading

 

Unit 5

Grammar: The Gerund

 

Exercise 1. Give all possible Gerund forms of the verbs below.

 

Example: burn – burning – being burnt – having burnt – having been burnt

 

to arouse, to accept, to absorb, to attach,  to break, to calculate, to charge, to classify, to define, to decrease, to depend on, to evaporate, to exist, to expect, to maintain,  to measure, to move, to produce, to reach, to take, to rotate, to remain, to resist, to hold, to heat, to install, to operate, to term, to equal, to contribute, to fix,  to store, to feed, to derive, to fulfil, to lead, to emit, to overload, to equip, to proceed, to approach, to transfer, to exhaust, to convert, to split, to supply

 

Exercise 2. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the Gerund.

 

1. Cooling is the most important part of any heat treatment operation. 2. We insist on repeating the experiment to control the results. 3. The new method of making these engines has been improved of by the group of engineers. 4. There are many ways of solving this problem. 5. By burning coal we may heat water in boiler. 6. Measuring resistance is necessary in many experiments. 7. After finishing the experiment, we wrote down the results. 8. There are different ways of obtaining the substance. 9. New possibilities for applying atomic energy open up. 10. Science requiring experimenting. 11. It is possible to set up power stations based on utilizing the heat of the Sun. 12. With the help of magnet we can hold two huge metal plates together without tying them. 13. The first alloys were formed by mixing metals with other substances and were stronger, harder and more elastic than the metals of which they were composed. 14. The electrical energy from the power lines is converted into high-voltage direct current for operating the transmitting tubes. 15. A constant speed of the device is maintained by supplying it with energy. 16. By using this device, we are to make new kinds of experiments. 17. Bombarding atoms often results in unstable atoms that sometimes emit positrons and sometimes electrons. 18. It is impossible to solve economical problems without using the achievements of the scientific and technological revolution.

 

Exercise 3. Complete the sentences using the Gerund.

 

1. Without ___________ (to know) chemistry it is not always easy  to make clear the distinction between chemical combinations and physical changes. 2. After _________ (to learn) the simple relationship existing between the units of mass and length, we can use this system easily. 4. Is any metal capable of __________ (to draw) out into a wire?  5. An engine is a device for __________ (to convert) one form of energy into another. 6. Steam is an important factor in __________ (to produce) usable energy because of the power created by its expansion. 7. Constant speed of the machine is maintained without _______ (to affect) by vibrations in the load. 8. __________(to weld) is a process of joining two pieces of metal together. 9. By  _______ (to do) this over and over again, they learned that different substances have different boiling points. 10. These steels may be used for ___________ (to manufacture) tools and working parts of machines.

 

Exercise 4. Read the following words. What are their prefixes, suffixes?  Translate the words and define which of them are: a) nouns, b) verbs, c) adjectives, d) adverbs?

 

generation, generator, inefficient, abnormally, underproduction, anticlockwise, demagnetize, superconductor, misunderstand, unequally, equality, interrelation, non-conductor, input, simplify, waterless, irregularity, enlargement, relatively, arrangement, fully, effectiveness, typically, impossible, superconductor, transfer, particularly, inverters, utility,  sensitive, reheating, directly, optimize, discharge, environmental,  elimination, capacitor, failure, inflexible

 

Exercise 5. Translate the following groups of words.

 

electric starter,  generator voltage regulator, battery and electric starter, portable three-phase generator, standby power generating units,  various types of  fuel, stationary or trailer-mounted units, critical loads, sensitive electronic equipment, trailer-mounted generators, production of clean sinusoidal wave power,  grid power, sewage pumping stations, running inverters, turbocharged series engine, small and medium generators, disaster areas, running inverters

 

Exercise 6. Memorize the following words.

 


crank – 1) угловой рычаг, рукоять, ручка; 2) пускать двигатель внутреннего          сгорания рукояткой

damage – вред, повреждение, ущерб

to disrupt – срывать, прерывать, нарушать

engine – двигатель

efficiency – эффективность, коэффициент полезного действия

to equip – снаряжать, оснащать, оборудовать

induction - индукция

influence – влияние, воздействие

inverter – инвертер, обратный,  преобразователь

frequency - частота

piezoelectricity - пъедоэлектричество

pulley – блок, шкив

reciprocating – возвратно-поступательный, поршневой

sensitive – чувствительный, восприимчивый

to supplement – дополнять, пополнять

triboelectric – трибоэлектрический

waterwheel – водяное колесо


 

Text А[edit]

Engine-generator

 

An engine-generator is the combination of an electrical generator and an engine mounted together to form a single piece of equipment. This combination is also called an engine-generator set or a gen-set. In many contexts, the engine is taken for granted and the combined unit is simply called a generator.

In addition to the engine and generator, engine-generators generally include a fuel tank, an engine speed regulator and a generator voltage regulator. Many units are equipped with a battery and electric starter. Standby power generating units often include an automatic starting system and a transfer switch to disconnect the load from the utility power source and connect it to the generator.

Engine-generators produce alternating current power that is used as a substitute for the power that might otherwise be purchased from a utility power station. The generator voltage (volts), frequency (Hz) and power (watts) ratings are selected to suit the load that will be connected. Both single-phase and three-phase models are available. There are only a few portable three-phase generator models available in the US. Most of the portable units available are single phase power only and most of the three-phase generators manufactured are large industrial type generators.

Engine-generators are available in a wide range of power ratings. These include small, hand-portable units that can supply several hundred watts of power, hand-cart mounted units, that can supply several thousand watts and stationary or trailer-mounted units that can supply over a million watts. The smaller units tend to use gasoline (petrol) as a fuel, and the larger ones have various fuel types, including diesel, natural gas and propane (liquid or gas).

When using engine-generators, you must be aware of the quality of the electrical wave it outputs. This is particularly important when running sensitive electronic equipment. A power conditioner can take the square waves generated by many engine-generators and smooth it out by running it through a battery in the middle of the circuit. Using an inverter rather than a generator may also produce clean sinusoidal waves. There are several quiet running inverters available that produce clean sinusoidal wave power suitable for use with computers and other sensitive electronics; however some low cost inverters do not produce clean sinusoidal waves and may damage certain electronic charging equipment.

Engine-generators are often used to supply electrical power in places where utility power is not available and in situations where power is needed only temporarily. Small generators are sometimes used to supply power tools at construction sites. Trailer-mounted generators supply power for lighting, amusement rides etc.

Standby power generators are permanently installed and kept ready to supply power to critical loads during temporary interruptions of the utility power supply. Hospitals, communications service installations, sewage pumping stations and many other important facilities are equipped with standby power generators.

Small and medium generators are especially popular in third world countries to supplement grid power, which is often unreliable. Trailer-mounted generators can be towed to disaster areas where grid power has been temporarily disrupted.

The mid-size stationary engine-generator pictured here is a 100 kVA set which produces 415 V at around 110 A per phase. It's powered by a 6.7 litre turbocharged Perkins Phaser 1000 series engine, and consumes approximately 27 litres of fuel an hour, on a 400 litre tank.

Stationary generators used in the US are used in size up to 2800 kW. These diesel engines are run in the UK on red diesel and rotate at 1500 rpm. This produces power at 50 Hz, which is the frequency used in the UK. In areas where the power frequency is 60 Hz (United States), generators rotate at 1800 rpm or another even multiple of 60.

Diesel engine-generator sets operated at their best efficiency point can produce between 3 and 4 kilowatt-hours of electrical energy for each liter of diesel fuel consumed, with lower efficiency at part load.

 

Exercise 7. Read the following supplementary text. Translate it in written form.

 

Text B[edit]

Electrical generator

 

An electrical generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy, generally using electromagnetic induction. In 1831-1832 Michael Faraday discovered that a potential difference is generated between the ends of an electrical conductor that moves perpendicular to a magnetic field. He also built the first electromagnetic generator called the 'Faraday disc', a type of homopolar generator, using a copper disc rotating between the poles of a horseshoe magnet. It produced a small DC voltage, and large amounts of current.

The source of mechanical energy may be a reciprocating or turbine steam engine, water falling through a turbine or waterwheel, an internal combustion engine, a wind turbine, a hand crank, or any other source of mechanical energy.

Before the connection between magnetism and electricity was discovered, generators used electrostatic principles. The Wimshurst machine used electrostatic induction or "influence". The Van de Graaff generator uses either of two mechanisms:

§   Charge transferred from a high-voltage electrode

§   Charge created by the triboelectric effect using the separation of two insulators (the belt leaving the lower pulley)

Electrostatic generators are used for scientific experiments requiring high voltages. Because of the difficulty of insulating machines producing very high voltages, electrostatic generators are made only with low power ratings and are never used for generation of commercially-significant quantities of electric power.

Other types of electrical generator exist, based on other electrical phenomena such as piezoelectricity, and magneto hydrodynamics.

 

Exercise 8. Answer the questions.

 

1.     What devices are described in the texts? 2. What is the engine generator used for? 3. What does an engine generator include?  4. What is electrical generator?        5. Where the small and medium generators are popular?

 

Exercise 9. Match the words with their definitions.

 

1.   direct current, electric current, alternating current

a) a flow of electric current that changes direction at a very fast rate

b) a current which always flows in one and the same direction

c) a flow of electricity along and electric circuit, usually measured by  amperes

2.   galvanometer, ohmmeter, wattmeter

a) an instrument for measuring electrical power

b) an instrument used for measuring electrical resistance

c) an instrument for measuring the strength of electric current

3.  circuit breaker, controller, power line

a) a thick wire that carries electricity above and below the ground

b) a device for controlling an electric machine or a circuit

c) a piece of equipment designed to stop an electric current automatically if it becomes too strong or dangerous

Exercise 10. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the Gerund and Gerund Construction.

 

1. When he had proved that his theory was correct, he started studying ways and means of improving the conditions of work in very deep coalmines. 2. On having lost some of its electrons, the atom has a positive charge. 3. After having been subjected to severe testing the material was recommended for use. 4. Having been cooled two hours the mixture was examined. 5. Having made a lot of experiments, he found out that this substance possessed the property of attracting small particles. 6. Without being subjected to a special treatment this substance cannot be used for manufacturing. 7. His having solved this difficult problem shows that his method is perfectly correct. 8. We heard of the experiment having been started lat week. 9. After having measured the temperature twice he decided to change the conditions of the experiment. 10. The chief engineer was responsible for the work being finished in time. 11. In spite of its having been compressed, the gas returns to its original volume as soon as the applied force is removed. 12. The explanation lies in the product being more stable.

 

Exercise 11. Read the text and complete the gaps with the help of words in front of each line changing their grammatical form.

 

Choosing a generator

Sizing your generator

It's important to match the size of your generator to                         importance

your __________ needs. An undersized generator won't last             electricity

long and can destroy motors and other electrical __________           to equip

that requires more current than the ____________ can deliver.                   to generate

Generators are rated by their maximum electrical power output

in kilowatts. (A kilowatt equals 1,000 watts, or enough energy

to light 10 100-watt light bulbs.)

Generator fuels

Generators run on a wide variety of fuels, ________ gasoline,           to include

diesel, biodiesel, natural gas, propane and in the case of some

fuel cells - hydrogen. Most of the ___________ models use             expensive

gasoline. Biodiesel, a greener____________, is made from               to alternate

vegetable oil or recycled restaurant cooking oils. It produces

significantly less emissions, is safer to store and has better                 significant

lubricating properties than petroleum-______ diesel.                         base

 

Exercise 12. Put down the title corresponding to each of the given descriptions.

 

Series generator, Shunt generator, Turbo-generator, Compound Motor

 

1.  A machine which generates an electric current (usually a dynamo electric generator, both a shunt winding and a series winding are on its field magnets).

2.  A machine consisting of an a.c. generator mounted upon the shaft of a steam turbine.

3.  A generator whose field-magnet winding is connected in series with or in succession to its armature.

4.  A generator whose field-magnet winding is connected in shunt to, or in parallel with its armature.

 

[edit][edit]Exercise 13. Translate into English.

 

1. Были другие способы применить высокое напряжение. 2. При нагревании до достаточно высокой температуры любое вещество становится   жидким. 3. Двигатели портятся от перегрузок. 4. В нашем теоретическом обсуждении стоит рассматривать только чрезвычайные условия. 5. Введение активного сопротивления в обмотку управления производит эффект усиления мощности. 6. Преобразование делается при помощи третьей формулы. 7. В практике применяются различные методы охлаждения трансформатора в зависимости от их размеров и условий. 8. Ученые говорили об организации новой лаборатории.

 

Exercise 14. Translate the following text and give definitions to the words in italics.

 

Generator components

 

Most generators have four primary parts: an engine that provides the mechanical energy; an alternator that converts the mechanical energy into electricity; an output/control panel that houses electrical outlets, circuit breakers and switches; and a frame to hold all the components together. In the case of a gasoline- or diesel-powered generator, a fuel tank is attached. This combined unit is referred to as a generator set or "genset."

The most common residential backup gensets use gasoline engines, but this category includes a wide range of generator options. Cheaper generators have single-cylinder, air-cooled engines. Higher-quality units have multiple-cylinder, liquid-cooled engines that provide a steadier operating temperature and substantially less engine noise due to the sound-reducing qualities of the water jacket. An engine that has overhead valves (OHV) is easier to start, runs quieter, lasts longer and produces fewer emissions than non-OHV engines.

Because alternators are what generate electricity in the engine, it's equally important to choose one that is built to last. All-metal construction is preferable to plastic, which can crack or warp, causing the internal parts to wear or break. Alternators that use ball bearings rather than needle bearings in their construction should have a longer life span, too. Another important feature to look for is a "brushless" design, which requires less maintenance and generates "cleaner" power for electronic devices such as computers.

 

Exercise 15. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the generators considered in Text A and Text B.  

 

Unit 6

Grammar: The Infinitive

 

Exercise 1. Define what forms of infinitives are used.

 

to be accepted, to be charging, to have classified, to have been existing, to have discovered, to reach, to have been calculated, to be rotating, to be measured, to be defining, to have resisted, to have been decreasing, to be installed, to be operating, to have been stored, to be emitting, to have equipped, to have been assigned, to insulate, to be approached, to have been transferred, to have been exhausting, to be converted, to conduct, to be based,  to have been producing

 

Exercise 2. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the Infinitive.

 

1. Various installations were used in order to transform electric power into mechanical heat, and chemical power. 2. At least 90 per cent of electric energy to be generated at present is alternating current. 3. No additional components were used since they were not needed to actuate the relay. 4. Corrosion inhibitors are used extensively in the Oil and Gas industry for corrosion control and to extend components lifetime as well as improving production.  5. Electricity was thought to be “rays” or “stream” that passed from the rubbed material. 6. We know these electric particles to be electrons. 7. Some atomic power stations are assumed to be built for experimental purpose. 8. Many scientists thought electricity to be a sort of fluid. 9. We know many substances to possess the property of electricity. 10. He proved to be the first scientist who suggested the idea of driving electricity into positive and negative electricity. 11. The use of iron is believed to have been discovered later than the use of copper. 12. The factors to be considered are of great importance taking into account the further development of this method.

 

Exercise 3.  Put the Infinitives in brackets into the correct form.

 

1. Alternating current can be increased, or decreased_________ (meet) industrial requirements. 2. Gas turbines can be started within minutes, while steam plants may require _______ (put) into operation. 3.________ (explain) the problem students were interested in, the engineer demonstrated diagrams. 4. Many various types of car engines are reported ________ (produce) in this country during the last decades. 5. The problem _______ (discuss) is connected with the city water supply system. 6. The next ________ (follow) is the law of combining proportions. 7. The following discussion will attempt ________ (rank) these four microstructures according to the factors which control toughness. 8. _______ (reduce) the power losses, thick wires should be used. 9. Most widely used in the European market, Siemens technology continues __________ (grow) in popularity in the United States. 10. ________  (convert) chemical energy into electrical energy we must use an electrical cell. 12. In order ________ (solve) this problem you have (make) a great number of experiments. 13. We have tested the engine _______(put) into service the day after tomorrow.

 

Exercise 4. Translate the following derivatives.

 

to generate – generation – regeneration – generator; to mean – meaning – meaningless; to vary – various – variety– variable; to burn – burning; to apply – appliance – application – applicable; to contribute – contribution – contributor; to observe – observation – observer – observable; to reserve – reservoir

 [edit]

Exercise 5. Read and translate the following word combinations.

 

hydroelectric power, large dams, fossil fuels, environmental consideration, environmental impact, peak-load demand, carbon dioxide emission, harmful emissionsubmerged plant, prohibit development, alternative power generation, greenhouse gas, low cost electricity, hydropower reservoir, electricity generated from nuclear energy, hydropower reservoir, domestic energy supply, "shaft power", tidal stream power, utilization of stored power, electricity demands drops

 

Exercise 6. Memorize the following words.

 


abundance – изобилие

to captureбрать, взять

dam - плотина

to decay - гнить

decay – гниение, распад

discernible - различимый

diversion – отклонение

intake – впуск, вход, впускное приемное устройство, водозабор

greenhouse – теплица, ~ effect тепличный эффект

to handle – управлять, обращаться

to harness – использовать источник энергии

mill – фабрика, завод

peakload – максимальная пиковая нагрузка

to prohibit – запрещать, запретить

reservoir – резервуар, водохранилище, запас

to submerge – погружать, затоплять


 

Text A

[edit] Hydroelectric power

There are many forms of water power:

§   Waterwheels , used for hundreds of years to power mills and machinery

§   Hydroelectric energy, a term usually reserved for hydroelectric dams

§   Tidal power, which captures energy from the tides in horizontal direction

§   Tidal stream power, which does the same vertically

§   Wave power, which uses the energy in waves

Hydroelectric power now supplies about 715,000 MWe or 19% of world electricity (16% in 2003). Large dams are still being designed. Apart from a few countries with an abundance of it, hydro power is normally applied to peak-load demand, because it is readily stopped and started. Nevertheless, hydroelectric power is probably not a major option for the future of energy production in the developed nations because most major sites within these nations with the potential for harnessing gravity in this way are either already being exploited or are unavailable for other reasons such as environmental considerations.

Hydropower produces essentially no carbon dioxide or other harmful emissions, in contrast to burning fossil fuels or gas, and so is not a significant contributor to global warming through CO2. Recent reports have linked reservoir construction to methane, which forms out of decaying submerged plants which grow in the dried up parts of the basis in times of drought. Methane is a greenhouse gas.

Hydroelectric power can be far less expensive than electricity generated from fossil fuel or nuclear energy. Areas with abundant hydroelectric power attract industry with low cost electricity. However, environmental concerns with the effects of hydropower reservoirs may prohibit development of otherwise economic hydropower sources.

The chief advantage of hydroelectric dams is their ability to handle seasonal (as well as daily) high peak loads. When the electricity demands drop, the dam simply stores more water. Some electricity generators use water dams to store excess energy (often during the night), by using the electricity to pump water up into a basin. The electricity can be regenerated when demand increases. In practice the utilization of stored water in river dams is sometimes complicated by demands for irrigation which may occur out of phase with peak electrical demands.

 

Exercise 7. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the Infinitive.

 

1. Превращать газы в жидкости была одной из многочисленных проблем, над которыми он работал. 2. Чтобы определить это отношение, нужно было решить уравнение. 3. Ученые считают, что результаты, которые должны быть получены в этом эксперименте, будут широко использованы. 4. Чтобы уменьшить потери мощности в линии, необходимо уменьшить поток через проводники. 5. Чтобы пользоваться этим методом, нужно иметь необходимое оборудование. 6. Пытаясь преодолеть эти трудности, инженеры провели большую экспериментальную работу. 7. Чтобы изучить техническую термодинамику, мы должны много заниматься. 8. Провести этот опыт - значит получить новые экспериментальные данные. 9. Целью термообработки является обеспечение полной диффузии имеющегося углерода. 10. Двигатель может рассматриваться как одна из наиболее важных частей автомобиля.

Exercise 8. Read the following supplementary text and define the main problems touched upon in it; entitle it.

 

Text B

 [edit]

Small scale hydro or micro-hydro power has been increasingly used as an alternative energy source, especially in remote areas where other power sources are not available. Small scale hydro power systems can be installed in small rivers or streams with little or no discernible environmental effect on things such as fish migration. Most small scale hydro power systems make no use of a dam or major water diversion, but rather use water wheels with little environmental impact.

There are some major factors to consider when installing a micro-hydro system. First is the amount of water flow available on a consistent basis; periods of little or no rain can greatly affect plant operation. Second is what is known as head, this is the amount of drop the water has between the intake and the exit of the system. The more head, the larger amount of power can be generated. Third, there can be legal and regulatory issues that must be researched. Most counties, cities, and states have their own regulations about water rights and easements.

Increasingly over the last few years, the U.S. Government has increased its support for alternative power generation. Many resources such as grants, loans, and tax benefits are available for installing a small scale hydro system.

In poor areas of the world, many remote communities still do not have access to electricity. Micro hydro power, which has a capacity of 100 kW or less, allows such communities to generate their own electricity. This is a form of power which is supported by various organizations such as the UK's Intermediate Technology Development Group.

Micro-hydro power can be used directly as "shaft power" for many industrial applications. Alternatively, the preferred option for domestic energy supply is to convert to electricity either through the use of a custom generator or through a reversed electric motor which, while often less efficient is more likely to be available locally and cheaply.

 

Exercise 9. Match the words with their definitions.

 

hydroelectric

energy that is produced when the structure of central part of an atom is changed

fossil fuel

energy obtained from oil, coal, the sun, etc. used for operating equipment and machines

reservoir

a form of energy that can produce light, heat, and power for machines, computers, televisions, etc.

methane

a fuel such as coal or oil, made from decayed material

nuclear energy

a container, often a part of a machine, where liquid

is kept for a particular purpose; an artificial lake where water is stored

electricity

using water power to produce electricity

power

a gas with no colour or smell that is used as fuel

 

Exercise 10. Find in the texts А and В English equivalents to the following word combinations.

 

водные плотины, глобальное потепление,  альтернативный источник энергии, водная диверсия, водный поток, заметный экологический эффект,  измененный электрический двигатель, доступ к электричеству,  промышленные  применения, вредная эмиссия, сжигание ископаемого топлива или газа, реверсивный электродвигатель, производить собственное электричество, гидросистемы  маленького масштаба,

 

Exercise 11. Do the knowledge quiz.

 

1. On what sites are hydroelectric power plants built

a)     on waterfalls

b)    on rivers

c)     on prairies

2. The main advantage of hydropower produces is that it

a) hydroelectric power can be less expensive than electricity

b) produces no carbon dioxide or other harmful emissions

c) their ability to handle seasonal (as well as daily) high peak loads

3. Small scale hydro or micro-hydro power has been increasingly used in

         a) most countries, cities, and states

b) areas where other power sources are not available

c) in small rivers or streams

4. Micro-hydro power can be used directly as

a) preferred option for domestic energy supply

b) major option for the future of energy production

c) "shaft power" for many industrial applications.

 

Exercise 12. Translate the words in brackets to make the sentences complete. Give definitions of the words in brackets.

 

1. A (гидроэлектрическая система) converts the force from flowing water into electricity. 2. You take the kinetic energy of water flowing downhill from a stream or river and direct it onto a wheel in a turbine that converts (вращательная энергия) to electricity. 3. The amount of (производимая мощь) depends on the volume of water flowing onto the turbine and the vertical distance it falls through the system. 4. In its simplest form, the energy potential of flowing water depends on its (расход) (usually measured in gallons per minute) multiplied by the pressure behind that flow. 5. (Измерение давления) combines with flow rate to determine the raw energy potential of a location. 6. Most microhydro installations include a (трубопровод) that diverts water over land down from an area of high elevation, connecting to an (закрытое водное колесо) (that's the turbine) at some lower level. 7. Large-capacity hydroelectric power plants are commonly located at considerable distance from the (потребители) of electric power.

 

Exercise 13. Describing and explaining.

Hydraulic turbine and electrical generator.You are going to write a description of a device.  Use the plan below to help you:

ü Use the diagram and the information about this device to write a brief description of it. Your description should answer these questions:

         What is it called?

         What is it for?

         What does it consist of?

         How are the parts connected?

         What is it made of?

ü In the second paragraph you should explain how it works. Your second paragraph should answer these questions:

         How does it work?

         How did the invention get its name?

         What are the advantages of this invention?

         Where this invention is used?

ü And in conclusion your own point of view, hopes and ideas about this device.

         What happens next with this invention?

         Will it change its design?

 

Exercise 14. Divide in groups of three-four people, work out three or four questions to the texts and let the others answer them.

 

Exercise 15. Find some additional material devoted to the problems raised in the texts and write the short report in English.

 

Unit 7

Grammar: The Subjective Infinitive Construction. The Objective Infinitive Construction

 

The Subjective

 Infinitive

 Construction

The design of this motor appears to have been published in the latest issue of the magazine. .

По-видимому (кажется), чертеж этого двигателя напечатан в последнем номере этого журнала.

The Objective

 Infinitive

 Construction

We expected the new machine to be delivered in time.

Мы ожидали, что новая машина будет доставлена вовремя.

Exercise 1. Translate the sentences paying attention to the: A) The Subjective Infinitive Construction, B) The Objective Infinitive Construction.

 

A) 1. Passenger traffic is expected to continue to grow. 2. This new approach to the problem discussed turns out to be the most satisfactory. 3. This discovery is likely to be of the greatest value. 4. The construction of this plant is certain to be completed in three months. 5. The secondary circuits are reported by the engineer to have been arranged so that correct operation of any relay cannot cause tripping. 6. When water falls from a great distance, its energy is known to change from potential to kinetic. 7. The development of the project appears to be improving.

B) 1. We know gravity to act on every particle of a body so that its eight is actually distributed throughout the body. 2. We expected the core to be coated with a thin layer of pure rubber. 3. We know the pressure to decrease as altitude increases. 4. These features allow this series of computers to be used effectively in all types of system applications. 4. We felt a good possibility utilize the new equipment for speeding up the technological process. 5. The building of a good road causes a great deal of preliminary work to be done.  

 

Exercise 2. Define forms of Infinitive in the sentences given below: a) The Subjective Infinitive Construction or b) The Objective Infinitive Construction.

 

1. The output of machinery is known to be steadily increasing all over the world. 2. We know the apparatus used for converting electrical energy from one voltage to another to be called a transformer. 3. The light water reactor types seem to be most promising. 4. The use of underground transmission lines is known to have been increased. 5. Nuclear plants   are expected to be located away   from urban areas. 6. The line appeared to be demagnetized. 7. The artificial satellites showed the Earth to be surrounded by intense radiation. 8. The capacity of generating units was said to have been doubled. 9. In some countries, the nuclear power plants are believed to produce about 80 per cent of whole amount of energy. 10. The most important problems in atomic power generation are known to be concerned with the reactor. 11. The creation of complex modern devices is considered to require a thoroughly developed industry and a high technical level in all branches of industry. 12. They found rodon to be three times as heavy as hydrogen.

 

Exercise 3. Read and translate the following words and word expressions.

 

tidal range; trapped water; to turn turbines; tidal barrage; environmental constraints; to generate electricity in bursts; water level fluctuations; inflow of water; wave energy system; renewable energy; ocean thermal power; thermal gradient; energy locked in the movement of waves and tides; reliable source of energy; underwater currents; significant contributor to electrical generation needs; wave power generator; energy production; excess power in periods of rough sea; to generate renewable hydrogen;  large tidal range; tidal current devices; turbine design; tidal stream technology

 

Exercise 4. Memorize the following words.

 


to absorb – впитывать, поглощать, абсорбировать

to appear - появляться

bay – залив, бухта

barrage – заграждение, барраж

burst- разрыв, вспышка

estuary – устье

to exceed – превышать

delivery- доставка

density – плотность

to divulge – разглашать

to frustrate - расстраивать

to oscillate – вибрировать, колебаться

propeller – пропеллер, винт

to provide – снабжать, обеспечивать, предоставлять

stream – поток, течение

to test – испытывать, проверять

tide – прилив и отлив

to transfer – переносить, передавать


 

Exercise 5. Read the text and define the main problems touched upon in it. Translate the text.

 

Text A

 [edit]Tidal and Wave power

 

Harnessing the tides in a bay or estuary has been achieved in France (since 1966), Canada and Russia, and could be achieved in certain other areas where there is a large tidal range. The trapped water can be used to turn turbines as it is released through the tidal barrage in either direction. Worldwide this technology appears to have little potential, largely due to environmental constraints. Another possible fault is that the system would generate electricity most efficiently if it were to generate electricity in bursts, every six hours (once every tide). Obviously, this limits the applications for which tidal energy can be used.

A relatively new technology development, tidal stream generators draw energy from underwater currents in much the same way that wind generators are powered by the wind. The much higher density of water means that there is the potential for a single generator to provide significant levels of power. Tidal stream technology is at the very early stages of development though and will require significantly more research before it becomes a significant contributor to electrical generation needs.

Several prototypes have shown some promise. For example, in the UK in 2003, a 300 kW Period flow marine current propeller type turbine was tested off the north coast of Devon, and a 150 kW oscillating hydroplane device, the Stingray, was tested off the Scottish coast. Another British device, the Hydro Venturi, is to be tested in San Francisco Bay.

The Canadian company Blue Energy has plans for installing very large arrays tidal current devices mounted in what they call a 'tidal fence' in various locations around the world, based on a vertical axis turbine design.

[edit]Harnessing power from ocean surface wave motion is a possibility which might yield much more energy than tides. The feasibility of this has been investigated, particularly in Scotland in the UK. Generators either coupled to floating devices or turned by air displaced by waves in a hollow concrete structure would produce electricity for delivery to shore. Numerous practical problems have frustrated progress.

A prototype shore based wave power generator is being constructed at Port Kembla in Australia and is expected to generate up to 500 MWh per annum. The Wave Energy Converter has been constructed (as of July 2005) and initial test results have exceeded expectations in terms of energy production during times of low wave energy. The energy of waves crashing against the shore is absorbed by an air driven generator and converted to electricity. For countries with large coastlines and rough sea conditions the energy density of breaking waves offers the possibility of generating electricity in utility volumes. Excess power in periods of rough sea could be used to generate renewable hydrogen.

 

Exercise 6. Find the definitions of the following words.

 

turbine, tide, barrage,

 stream, prototype, floating, hydrogen, renewable

 

1. Not    fixed or permanent, and therefore likely to change.  2. A continuous flow of liquid or gas.  3. Energy and natural materials that replace themselves by natural processes, so that they are never completely used up.  4. The way that the level of the sea regularly rises and falls during the day. 5. A wall built across a river in order to control the level of the water. 6. The first or most typical example of something. 7. An engine or a machine that uses the pressure of liquid or gas on a wheel to get power. 8. A gas that has no colour or smell and is lighter than air.

 

Exercise 7. Read and translate the following supplementary text. Compare the information given in text A and text B.

 

Text B

Catch A Wave

 

As any surfer will tell you, wave power is not to be underestimated

Like surfers, engineers see plenty of potential in the ocean's waves. In fact, 10% of the world's electricity supply could someday come from this renewable resource, according to a World Energy Council estimate. One way to harness the power of the sea is by offshore wave energy devices. Aside from being environmentally benign, these structures usually sit low to the water, offshore, getting around not-in-my-backyard-type issues.

Wave technology is still young. The first time an offshore wave energy device (the Pelamis WEC) generated electricity and transferred it to an onshore grid was in August 2004. Mirko Previsic of the Palo Alto, Calif.-based Electrical Power Research Institute sees the following devices as among those furthest along.

The force of a wave travelling along it causes the different segments to move like a seesaw. A hydraulic system in the hinges pumps high-pressure oil through motors; these drive generators that produce electricity. Power from the joints is fed down a cord to a junction on the sea bed, where several devices can be connected together and linked to shore through a single cable. The Pelamis P-750 has an installed capacity of 750 kilowatts. In May, the company inked a deal to begin construction on the world's first commercial wave farm off northern Portugal. The firm would not divulge the current cost of the electricity the Pelamis WEC generates, but project engineer Andrew Scott projects future costs of 6¢ or 7¢ per kilowatt hour.

(By Calvin Leung

Source: Canadian Business, 9/12/2005, Vol. 78 Issue 18, p51, 1p, 3c.)

 

Exercise 8.  Answer the questions.

 

1. Where the harnessing of tides has been firstly achieved? 2. What plans for the future the Canadian company Blue Energy has? 3. Why engineers decided that the harnessing power from ocean surface gives much more energy than tides? 4. What potentials  the ocean's waves energy has? 5. When the flow marine current propeller type turbine was first tested? 6. What capacity the Pelamis P-750 has?

 

Exercise 9. Make p a plan of the text A. Retell it using your plan.

 

Exercise 10.  Try to explain the following terms.

 

tidal power (energy), tidal range, trapped water, stream generators, wave technology, wave power generator, energy density, renewable hydrogen

 

Exercise 11. Translate the sentences paying attention to the: a) The Subjective Infinitive Construction, b) The Objective Infinitive Construction.

 

1. The engineer expected the work to be done in time. 2. We believe cybernetics to be an important branch of modern technology. 3. All the man’s knowledge in the field of electricity is known to have been obtained during the last 400 years or so. 4. A steam power station is known to consist of four main components. 5. In spite of bad weather the professor made the students continue their experiment. 6. Several atomic power stations are supposed to be built in our country within the next few years. 7. Lighting is known to have frequently destroyed wooden buildings before the lightning rod was invented. 8. We expect hot mineral water to be in use in order to heat scores of towns in various parts of the country. 9. Physicists consider nuclear energy to be the prime source of heat energy. 10. Every battery is known to be steadily increasing all over the world. 11. Modern discoveries allow science and engineering to be developed rapidly. 12. These chemical changes prove to have been caused by heat.

 

Exercise 12. Read the text and find mistakes in each line. If the line is correct put a tick ü if not write down the mistake.

 

Wave  Energy

 


The ocean holds most than enough power to                           _____                           

light entire cities. Scientists needed just to figure                       _____

out way a to harness it. The permanent magnet                         _____

linear generator buoy consists of a series of                                       _____

powerful magnetes on a 12-ft.-long shaft that is                        _____

tethered to the seafloor 100 ft. below. A copper                       _____

coil that had surrounds the shaft is housed in a "floater"           _____

or fiberglass buoy that moves and down with the                     _____

waves. The motion of the coil slices through the shaft's            _____

magnetic field and induces an electric current. Unlike                _____

earlier designs involving hydraulic nor pneumatic pumps,          _____

this direct-drive buoy can and produce efficiencies of up          _____

to 90 percent. Wave energy offering significant advantages       _____

over renewables such as wind, von Jouanne says. Waves         _____

are more predictable and have an energy density to up 50         _____

times greater than wind.                                                           _____

 

Exercise 13. Choose the words that fit best each space.

 

Riding the wave of ocean energy

 

Oceans cover more than 70 percent of the Earth's 1__________, making them both the world's largest solar 2__________ and the world's largest machine. Not surprisingly, these are the two characteristics harnessed 3____________ ocean power. Ocean thermal power 4____________ electricity using the thermal gradient between warm surface water and the colder deep ocean water. In contrast, ocean mechanical power 5_________ the energy locked in the 6____________ of waves and tides.

It is no wonder that Hawaii has become the nation's proving ground for these new 7____________. "We have a constant and reliable 8_________ of energy and because we have one of the highest prices for electricity in the nation we are the perfect location for siting wave projects," says Hawaii Representative Cynthia Thielen.

The United States Navy is building a 40 kilowatt wave power station off the Marine Corps base on Oahu. Located approximately one kilometre off the coast in 30 meters of water, the data gathered from this 9________ will support the continuing evolution of these technologies.

It is not just the U.S. military moving forward with ocean energy 10___________, New Jersey has a Power Buoy™ off the coast that is already producing power. States are supporting the development of ocean energy technologies primarily through 11___________ portfolio standards. Coastal states and those situated in the Great Lakes region allow ocean, tidal and wave resources to qualify.

 

1.       A. distance           B. space               C. part                  D. surface

2.       A. lighter               B. collector           C. starter              D. turbine

3.       A. to produce       B. to make            C. to improve       D. to develop

4.       A. conducts          B. generates          C. connects          D. moves

5.       A. consumes         B. divides             C. supports          D. utilizes

6.       A. movement        B. development     C. variation           D. insulation

7.       A. utilities             B. technologies     C. systems            D. models

8.       A. source              B. way                  C. branch             D. direction

9.       A. standard           B. range                C. system             D. style

10.     A. projects            B. phases              C. cases               D. codes

11.     A. changeable       B. dangerous        C. separate           D. renewable

 

Exercise 14. Writing an opinion piece.

 

Write your opinion on the topic “New sources of power today”.

The advices below can help you:

ü Start by listing the ideas of different people on this topic.

ü It is important to have strong introductory paragraph. List the ideas for and against your topic.

ü Organize your own opinion into the main paragraph.

ü Make sure you bring the argument to a conclusion and finish your opinion piece with summary of your opinions.

 

Unit 8

Grammar: Revision

 

Exercise 1.  Put the Infinitives in brackets into the correct form.

 

1. (to study) this phenomenon requires much knowledge. 2. The process (to analyse) in this article is known as ionization. 3. A switch is a device (to break) or to produce a short circuit. 4. The distance (to cover) was equal to five miles. 5. He was (be) translating that article at that time. 6. (to find) the mass of the electron numerous experiments had (make). 7. (to convert) chemical energy into electrical we must use an electrical cell. 8. Water may be used (to drive) dynamos which generates electricity. 9. The workers will use powerful machinery (to assemble) these huge units. 10. The internal combustion engine (to use) in this lorry is of a new design. 11.  The substance (to analyse) should be pure. 12. The force due to gravity originates in the natural attraction of the object and the earth, a topic (to be) more fully discussed later.

 

Exercise 2. Translate the sentences paying attention to Infinitive and Infinitive Construction.

          

  1. Many ores to be found in this district are of great value to industry. 2. We observed the evaporation of water, a phenomenon to be more fully described later. 3. The solution to be filtered was poured into a vessel. 4. The material to be studied is cut into the form of small pyramids. 5. These two gases are only to be found there. 6. This is the result to be expected from the series of experiments. 7. He wanted us to visit new technologies exhibition. 8. I know them to be working on the problem of using solar energy. 9. A magnet appears to have its magnetism concentrated at two points termed the poles. 10. The efficiency of this station is supposed to be about 34 per cent. 11. The fuel consumption of atomic is found to amount to 500 kg for 24 hours. 12. The improvement of the technological process is supposed to ensure lower cost of power. 13. We observe this object to be attracted by another one. 14. Long transmission lines are known to be necessary for the transfer of electric energy over long distances. 15. Polymers are said to be dynamic part of industry particularly plastics and fibres. 16. The use of electric heating would enable all generators to be economically and efficiently serviced at a central depot.  17.  Some types of reactors are known to produce more nuclear fuel during their operation than they consume.

 

Exercise 3. Translate the sentences paying attention to the Participle and Participle Construction.

 

1. The system is built in a modular way, integrating several existing algorithms and packages. 2. Unless discussed, this new method must not be used. 3. The method used depended upon the material selected. 4. Explaining the new theme our professor gave us a great many examples illustrating that rule. 5. Having used the device improved by a group of engineers, we automized a number of operations. 6. Having solved the main problem, the scientists made a report on his research. 7. The results obtained showed that the tested material possessed the property of recovering its original state. 8. Iron being treated with hydrochloric acid, we see that it goes into solution. 9. When working on magnetism, Faraday is said to have carried in his pocket a piece of iron with a copper wire wound on it. 10. The time of the beam’s travel and its velocity being known, the scientists were able to calculate the distance to different parts of the Moon’s surface with great precision. 11. Mendeleyev should be regarded as having discovered  the law of periodicity of the chemical elements.  12. Current passing through a coil of wire, magnetic poles are produced at each end of the coil and it acts like a magnet.  

 

Exercise 4. Translate the sentences paying attention to the Gerund and Gerund Construction.

1. The experiment resulted in finding new properties of this material. 2. His having solved this equation is quite natural. 3. Regarding the state of rest as a limiting condition of motion is including it under the general concept of   motion. 4. I. Newton’s having formulated this law was of great importance. 5. The discussion resulted in the experiment being made again. 6. By applying the methods of coordinates we solve complex mathematical problems. 7. After being introduced by Descartes the methods of coordinates found universal recognition and application. 8.  The method of controlling basic vacuum furnace process parameters has definitely changed over the years. 9. Protecting the personnel against radioactive radiation holds an important place at the atomic power station. 10. Controlling the heating system by two thermostats helps to maintain a comfortable temperature throughout the carriage. 11. We know of copper having been used as a conductor owing to its suitable characteristics. 12. The engineer insisted on these reservoirs being used for holding aviation gasoline. 

 

Exercise 5. Before reading the text, translate the following word combinations and try to explain them.

 

wind power, fastest-growing sources, resource areas, energy storage,  wind speed, three-blade rotor, attached generator, high-strength material, rotating aerodynamic blade, electricity-producing wind turbines, electricity demand, clean energy, low-cost energy, energy-storage technologies, renewable energy technology, conservation of energy, wind machine, "biomass", geothermal energy

 

Exercise 6. Memorize the following words.

 


to adapt – приспосабливать, применять

to avoid – избегать, уклоняться

to attach – прикреплять, привязывать

blade - лопасть

to blow – дуть, веять

breakthrough – прорыв

to causeвызывать, заставлять

centrifugal force – центробежная сила

to conserve - сохранять

cusp – острый выступ

executive – руководитель, adj. исполнительный

expansion – расширение, развитие, увеличение

governor – регулятор (первичного двигателя); уравнитель хода

obstacle – препятствие, помеха

to point out – указывать, обращать

proposal  - предложение

rebate - скидка

rotor - ротор

tower - башня, башенная опора

viability - жизнеспособность


 

Text A

Wind Power

In February, President Bush set a goal of generating 20 percent of America's electric power from wind energy. Even though Bush spelled out no timetable, that's an ambitious proposal, considering that windmills now provide less than 1 percent of U.S. power. But wind is one of the nation's fastest-growing sources of electricity.

Investors like wind for two reasons. First, wind power enjoys a production tax credit that has helped to offset its expensive generating costs. Second, 22 states and the District of Columbia require electricity providers to generate some of their power from renewable sources.

Electricity-producing wind turbines are popping up at a record pace, with each windmill producing from 750 kilowatts to 1.5 megawatts of power. More than 9,000 megawatts of wind power is now available in the United States. That's the equivalent of the output from nine standard-sized nuclear reactors. Another 3,000 megawatts of wind power is due to come online by the end of this year, Swisher said. Texas has harnessed the most wind power, with California a close second.

Worldwide, wind power produces almost 60,000 megawatts of electricity, meeting 1 percent of electricity demand, according to the World Wind Energy Association. The turbines produce electricity only when the wind is blowing, but Swisher said that utilities are adapting to wind's unreliability by pairing wind turbines with another source of electricity or with energy-storage technologies.

A bigger barrier to expansion of wind power in the United States is the limited reach of the nation's high-power electric lines. "The most significant obstacle to getting to 20 percent," Swisher pointed out, "is the need for transmission to connect the wind resource areas in the Great Plains with the major population centers on the coasts, where the energy would be used."

The Energy Policy Act boosted other forms of renewable energy technology as well. The law offers tax credits to companies that generate electricity from vegetation (or "biomass"), geothermal energy, landfill gas, and trash combustion. The measure also established a federal tax credit for solar-power systems for residential or business use.

While wind power is at the cusp of commercial viability, solar technology is still decades away from providing a significant portion of U.S. electricity. "Maybe in 50 years," said Princeton's Socolow. "It doesn't play a big role in the next 20 years." The problem? Solar power is too expensive. At a July 19 energy forum sponsored by the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, Howard Berke, the CEO of Konarka Technologies, which makes solar materials, said that solar needs a major technological breakthrough to become competitive.

(By Margaret Kriz

Source: National Journal, 8/5/2006, Vol. 38 Issue 31, p16.)

 

Exercise 7. Read and translate the following supplementary text.

 

Text B

Get Wind Power!

 

Two years ago, we installed a residential wind turbine that is grid-connected and rated for electricity generation at 10 kilowatts (kW). Because we chose an on-the-grid system, we didn't need to buy a bank of batteries for energy storage, and if we produce more electricity than we use in a year, we have a net-metering contract that entitles us to a rebate check from our local utility company. Utility companies are becoming more familiar with these renewable energy technologies, and prices for residential wind turbines are dropping. Still, given the large initial investment, it's worthwhile to find ways to conserve energy at home before purchasing a wind turbine, which can greatly reduce the size of the system you will need to buy.

The main components of wind turbines:

Turbine (generator): The electricity generator that is attached to the top of the tower.

Rotor: The set of rotating aerodynamic blades. The load on the airfoil-shaped blades is captured by the attached generator. The amount of "swept area" is determined by the rotor diameter; generally, the greater the diameter, the more power is generated. Two or three blade rotors are most common. Three blade rotors, while less efficient, spin more smoothly, extending the life of the equipment and allowing the turbine to start at lower wind speeds.

Tail: The component that tracks the wind's direction.

Governor: The mechanism that limits the amount of electricity produced, protects the equipment from overproducing and burning up in high winds, and limits the centrifugal force.

Tower: The post upon which the turbine is mounted. It's made from high-strength materials with three common styles: free-standing, guyed lattice and tilt-up. Towers help the generator avoid ground wind drag (the friction between the earth and moving air masses) and turbulence caused by obstacles on the Earth's surface.

 

Exercise 8. Answer the following questions.

 

1. What kind of degree has President Bush issued in February? 2. Why is wind one of the nation’s fastest-growing sources of electricity? 3. Which states of America has succeeded in generating wind power?   4. Why is solar technology unable to provide a major portion of US electricity? 5. What are the main components of wind turbines?  6. What is governor? What it is used for? 7. What is rotor? What it is used for?

 

Exercise 9.  Answer the questions below. Give only one answer to each question.

 

1. President Bush set a goal of generating 20% of electric power from

a) wind energy

b) solar energy

c) geothermal energy

2. The 2005 energy legislation extended tax credit for another

a) 10 years

b) 2 years

c) 5 years

3. The most wind power has been harnessed in

a) Florida, Alaska

b) Colorado, Utah   

c) Texas, California

4. The law offers tax credits to companies that generate electricity from

a) vegetation

b) trash combustion

c) landfill gas

d) all answers are right

   5. Solar power is thought to be

a) unprofitable

b) expensive

c) unavailable

 

Exercise 10. Translate the words in brackets to make the sentences complete. Give definitions to these words.

 

Power from the Wind

 

Wind energy is the fastest-growing (возобновляемый) energy source in the world. Over the last 20 years, the wind industry has done a very good job of engineering machines, improving materials and economies of production and making this energy (источник) a reality. Like all renewable (энергия) forms, wind energy's successful application is site specific. Not all locations have good wind (скорости). Adequate and sustained winds must exist throughout the year, and the machines should be near a local power utility system so the clean energy (произведенная) can be easily delivered to customers. Also, the energy must get to consumers at a reasonable price.

(Местоположение) of a good wind site is all important for installing wind machines. Open, sweeping plains or mountaintop locations work best, as these geographies tend to augment wind (условия), increasing their speed. Wind speed also naturally (увеличивает) with height. This point to the prime locations for installing wind turbines.  As you go up in height, the (направление) of the prevailing winds tends to change as well, (вращение) due to the natural revolution of the earth, the so-called Coriolis Effect. This also affects the (движение) of Earth's air masses and our weather.

Winds are actually produced because of the uneven (нагревание) of the Earth's vast surfaces. Natural (формирование) like dirt and rocks do not heat up at the same rate as water bodies, sandy deserts, or mountainous regions. These heating/temperature differences drive the winds.  The (вращающиеся) blades can also make significant noise, especially where a cluster of machines work together. As with any renewable energy (установка), wind energy engineers must design large machines to fit the environmental constraints of a site that can also deliver reliable, low-cost energy to customers.

 

Exercise 11. Look at the words below and match them to the correct definitions.

 

windmill

an official order given to somebody to perform a particular task

legislation  

using the sun’s energy

renewable resources

a tall thin structure with parts that turn round, used to change the power of the wind

mandate

a law or a set of laws passed by a Parliament

solar power

that is controlled carefully and can be used without the risk of finishing it all.

 

Exercise 12.Define the main problems raised in the texts. What can you add to the texts? Give the advantages and disadvantages of wind energy.

 

Exercise 13. Choose the article close to the subject investigated and do the following steps: 1) define its main idea, 2) work out theses to it, 3) write the summary.

 

Unit 9

Grammar: The Complex Sentence.

 

Exercise 1. Match the English and Russian equivalents of the following word combinations.

 

1. at least                                 a) из-за

2. thanks to                              b) несмотря на

3. because of                           c) вкратце

4. in case                                 d) вместо

5. at times                                e) чтобы

6. in short                                f) время от времени

7. by means of                         g) по крайней мере

8. in spite of                                      h) в случае, если

9. instead of                             i) как только

10. in order to                          j) также

11. as well as                           k) так же как

12. as well                               l) благодаря

13. as soon as                          m) в дополнение к

14. in addition to                      n) посредством

 

Exercise 2. Fill in the blanks with suitable words given below.

 

both … and, by means of, in order to, as well as, instead of,  as soon as,

owing to,  in order that, because of, therefore, as …as

 

1. The new equipment was used ______ test the vibration of the engine. 2. ________ the trouble in the engine there appeared another in the transmission. 3. _________ this device we can carry out more operations in shorter time.  4. The engine didn’t operate well ________bad fuel. 5. Who can repair the apparatus _________ him? 6. The strength of this synthetic material is ______ high _______ that of steel. 7. ________ all the calculations are completed, we will begin the tests. 8. Our century can be called “Space Age”______the development of a new branch of science and technology. 9. The sun gives us ________ light ______ heat; it gives us energy _______. 10. _________, ________compare the toughness of different alloys, both microstructural condition and strength level must be considered simultaneously.

 

Exercise 3. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the subordinate clauses.

 

1. The methods were improved, and the output increased. 2. The article you read yesterday contains very important data. 3. Observation of sun rays has shown that their intensity depends on a number of factors which are being investigated nowadays. 4. As soon as we receive the necessary data we shall inform you. 5. If suspended so that it can rotate freely, the solenoid points north and south when the current flows. 6. A current-carrying coil of wire which is long in comparison with its diameter is called a solenoid. 7. We know that the direction of the magnetic effect of the current can be found thanks to Ampere’s rule. 8. The plants which supply electricity over long distances are equipped with large alternators. 9. The alternator is a machine that generates a.c. 10. A bar of iron becomes strongly magnetized if inserted into the solenoid while the current is flowing. 11. The armature and the electromagnet are the principal parts the generator consists of. 12. It is desirable that they should measure all the chemical substances they deal with. 13. That the electromagnets are controllable is a very important thing, since they can attract and repel magnetic materials.

 

Exercise 4. Read and translate the following word combinations.

 

hazardous materials, radioactive material, nuclear power, radioactive waste depository, radioactivity created in nuclear fuels, short-lived radioactive elements, radioactive isotopes, heavy elements, nuclear fuels,  nuclear reactor, short-lived fission products long-lived isotopes,  advanced "burner" reactors, general scientific and technical consensus, deep geologic disposal, nuclear wastes, chemical and hydrogeologic conditions,  mining wastes, coal ash, solid wastes

 

Exercise 5.  Memorize the following words.

 


to apply – применять, прилагать, накладывать

assessment -определение, оценка

compliance (n) – уступчивость

to eliminate  - устранять, уничтожать

to evaluate – оценивать

interim – промежуточный, временный

fission - расщепление

hazardous – рискованный

 to persistпродолжать существовать, продолжать

perturbation – тревога, волнение

to promulgate – распространять, обнародовать, публиковать

recycle - рециркулировать

recycling - повторное использование, преработка

repository - хранилище

substantially - достаточно


 

Text A[edit]

Nuclear Waste and the Distant Future

 

Regulation of nuclear hazards must be consistent with rules governing other hazardous materials and must balance its risks against those linked to other energy sources. Although most of the radioactive material generated by nuclear energy decays away over short times ranging from minutes to several decades, a small fraction remains radioactive for far longer time periods. Although it is difficult to argue against any effort to protect public safety, risk management will be most effective when each risk is evaluated in the context of other risks and balanced against the benefits produced by the regulated activity.

A key regulatory decision for the future of nuclear power is the safety standard to be applied in the licensing of the radioactive waste depository at Yucca Mountain (YM), Nevada. In 1992, Congress passed the Energy Policy Act, directing the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to promulgate site-specific standards for the YM nuclear waste repository project. Furthermore, Congress stipulated that these standards be consistent with the findings and recommendations of the 1995 National Research Council report Technical Bases for Yucca Mountain Standards (commonly called the "TYMS report").

Nuclear fission extracts large quantities of energy from extremely small masses of fuel. The small quantity of fuel used, as compared to fossil energy alternatives, makes it possible to manage nuclear wastes by isolation as a concentrated, contained solid rather than by release and dilution into the environment as is done with fossil fuels. The vast majority of radioactivity created in nuclear fuels disappears rapidly after reactors shut down, as short-lived radioactive elements (so-called fission products) decay to become stable elements over periods of hours to days. A modest fraction of radioactivity comes from fission products that remain radioactive for decades, and a very small fraction from radioactive isotopes primarily heavy elements such as plutonium created by neutron capture, as well as some of their radioactive decay products that persist for tens to hundreds of millennia.

Nuclear reactor safety focuses on providing multiple containment barriers and reliable cooling to allow for the safe radioactive decay of short-lived fission products after reactor shutdown. Interim storage of spent fuel in surface facilities can then permit further substantial reductions in heat generation from the smaller quantities of fission products that take multiple decades to decay. The remaining inventory of very long-lived isotopes could be further reduced by factors of 40 to 100 by reprocessing spent fuel and recycling it in advanced "burner" reactors. With or without reprocessing, there remains a quantity of residual long-lived radioactive materials that must be stored and isolated from the environment.

A general scientific and technical consensus exists that deep geologic disposal can provide predictable and effective long-term isolation of nuclear wastes. Environments deep underground change extremely slowly with time, particularly when compared to the surface environment, and therefore their past behavior can be studied and extrapolated into the long-term future. The largest challenge for safety assessment for deep geologic isolation comes from predicting how the perturbation created by emplacing nuclear waste will change long-term chemical and hydrogeologic conditions in particular the effect on surrounding rock of the heat generated by the waste over multiple centuries.

A large number of other important human activities also generate wastes that present persistent or permanent hazards. These include mining wastes; coal ash; deep-well injected hazardous liquid waste; and solid wastes such as lead, mercury, cadmium, zinc, beryllium, and chromium that are managed at Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) and Superfund sites.

For these wastes, the longest compliance time required by the EPA is 10,000 years for deep-well injection of liquid hazardous wastes. For all forms of shallow land disposal, compliance times are substantially shorter. For RCRA solid waste management facilities, a typical permit is for 30 years, and the operator bears responsibility over a time horizon of less than a century. RCRA sites cannot reside in a 100-year flood plain unless they are designed to resist washout by a 100-year flood. Although coal and mining wastes pose potential health risks, federal legislation excludes them from the category of hazardous waste.

The safety standards recommended by the EPA for YM reflect a thoughtful assessment of risk and benefits. Indeed, instead of questioning the adequacy of these standards, policymakers should be focusing on other risks. The United States would be a safer place if this or any very long-term standard were applied uniformly to management of all types of long-lived hazardous waste, for the use of fossil fuels, and for other human activities as well.

(By Per F. Peterson; William E. Kastenberg and Michael Corradini

Source: Issues in Science & Technology, Summer2006, Vol. 22 Issue 4, p47.)

 

Exercise 6. Answer the questions.

 

1. For what reason polio/makers have established unique requirements for managing nuclear materials risks? 2. What is the key regulatory decision for the future of nuclear power?  3. What is the aim of the Energy Policy Act passed in 1992? 4. How is the nuclear reactor safety obtained? 5. What is the advantage of nuclear fission compared with fossil fuels alternatives? 6. What are the other sources of wastes that present persistent or permanent hazards? 7. What is the longest compliance time required by EPA for mining wastes, hazardous liquid wastes and solid wastes?

 

Exercise 7. Find in the text sentences where abbreviations are used, translate them into Russian. What do they mean?

 

Exercise 8. Read and translate the following supplementary text.

 

Text B[edit]

The Clean Coal Technology Program

 

The Clean Coal Technology (CCT) Program is a unique partnership between the federal government and industry that has as its primary goal the successful introduction of new clean coal utilization technologies into the energy marketplace. With its roots in the acid rain debate of the 1980s, the program is on the verge of meeting its early objective of broadening the range of technological solutions available to eliminate acid rain concerns associated with coal use. Moreover, the program has evolved and has been expanded to address the need for new, high-efficiency power-generating technologies that will allow coal to continue to be a fuel option well into the 21st century.

Clean coal technologies being demonstrated under the CCT Program are establishing a technology base that will enable the nation to meet more stringent energy and environmental goals. Most of the demonstrations are being conducted at commercial scale, in actual user environments, and under circumstances typical of commercial operations. These features allow the potential of the technologies to be evaluated in their intended commercial applications. Each application addresses one of the following four market sectors:

• Advanced electric power generation

• Environmental control devices

• Coal processing for clean fuels

• Industrial applications

The CAAA of 1990 regulate emissions of a number of substances of concern in steelmaking, primarily certain hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) as well as S02, NOx, and particulates. For blast furnace operation, the major issue is control of particulates. There are no federal emission regulations that specifically cover blast furnaces. They are regulated at the state level as part of State Implementation Plans. These regulations are generally based on opacity limits (typically 20% opacity for varying frequencies and durations).

Given its programmatic success, the CCT Program serves as a model for other cooperative government/industry programs aimed at introducing new technologies into the commercial marketplace.

 

Exercise 9. Translate the following word combinations into Russian.

нормы загрязнений в сталелитейной промышленности, опасные загрязнения воздуха, уменьшение выбросов, продукты сгорания, канцерогенные свойства, экологические нормы,  контролирующие выбросы, газификация угля, очищение газа, газовый турбинный генератор, обработка угля для чистых топлив, технологии производства твердого и чистого жидкого топлива,  высокая плотность энергии, низкое содержание серы, смешивание топлива и воздуха, новые технологии, загрязнения воздуха

 

Exercise 10. Find the definitions. The first letter is given to help you.

 

1. carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide in the atmosphere, produced by vehicles and industrial processes ~ e _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

2. rain containing a high level of acid that can damage the environment especially rain forests ~  a _ _ _  r _ _ _

3. a hard black substance that is dug from the ground and burned as fuel to provide heat ~  c _ _ _

4. poisonous and harmful to the environment  ~ t _ _ _ _

5. the process of burning ~  c _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

6. to change from liquid or solid form to a gas ~  g _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

7. a substance that is harmful to the environment ~ p _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

8. the process or result of making something smaller or result or less in amount, size, importance, etc. ~ r _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

9. a yellow chemical element that has a strong smell, used in industry and often a cause of air pollution ~ s _ _ _ _ _

10. a solid black substance similar to coal which is burn to produce heat ~ c _ _ _

 

Exercise 11. Complete the sentences using the required prepositions.

 

into, according to, because of, through, of, at, for, during, in, in case of.

1. As these fuels are burned, the sulphur is converted …….. sulfur-dioxide gas. 2. Coal and oil contain sulphur …….. concentrations ….… a    few   percent. 3. Devices are classed ……. the operation they are intended ……. 4. This type …… aerial is useful and popular ……. its small size. 5. …… a faulty device its readings are not to be relied ……. 6. The power transmitted …… a wire is the product …… the voltage times the amperage. 7…… resistive losses, it is desirable to transmit power …… low amperage and high voltage. 8……. doubling, the capability ……. a given circuit can be quadrupled.

 

Exercise 12. Put down the title corresponding to each of the given descriptions.

 

Nuclear fusion, Nuclear fission, Nuclear charge, Nuclear Energy, Nuclear fuel, Nuclear power, Nuclear reaction

 

1.  Energy released during a nuclear reaction as the result of the conversion of mass into energy. Energy of this kind is released in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons.

2.  A reaction between light atomic nuclei as a result of which a heavier nucleus is formed and a large quantity of nuclear energy is released. The temperatures necessary for fusion reactions are extremely high. Reactions of this kind are believed to be the source of the energy of the stars (including the Sun).

3.  A substance which undergoes nuclear fission or nuclear fusion in a nuclear rector, a nuclear weapon, or a star.

4.  A nuclear reaction in which a heavy atomic nucleus splits into two approximately equal parts, at the same time emitting neutrons and releasing very large amounts of nuclear energy.

5.  The positive electric charge on the nucleus of an atom. Numerically it is equal to the atomic number of the element, to the number of protons in the nucleus, and to the number of electrons surrounding the nucleus in the neutral atom.

6.  Any reaction which involves a change in the nucleus of an atom, as distinct from a chemical reaction which only involves the orbital electrons. Such reactions are produced in nuclear reactors, and nuclear weapons.

7.  Electric or motive power produced from a unit in which the primary energy source is a nuclear reactor.

 

Exercise 13. Read the text and find mistakes in each line. If the line is correct put a tick ü if not write down the mistake.

In a nuclear reactor uranium is utilized as a fuel. During                      ____

operation process powerful heat and radioactive and radiation            ____

are produced. The nuclear reactor is cooled after water circulation.    ____

In order to prevent the water boiling of, it passes into the reactor        ____

at a pressure up to 150 atmospheres. A steam generator includes       ____

a series of heat exchanges that comprising tubes. The water heated    ____

the reactor is delivered into the heat exchanger tubes. The water         ____

to be converted into steam flow outside these tubes. The steam         ____

produced is into fed turbogenerator.                                                 ____

 

         Exercise 14. Form the sentences using the following word combinations.

 

the electric power industry, electric utilities, coal-fired plants, manufacturing plants, pollution control devices, natural gas, climate change, regulate emissions of carbon dioxide, regulation of greenhouses gases,  nitrogen oxides, nuclear power stations, to generate electricity, deposits of coal, "clean coal" technologies, coal gasification, to clean up fossil fuels, pollution from coal, combustion processes, environmental goals, cooperative government/industry programs

 

Exercise 15. Complete the crossword and find the key word.

 

1

 

 

 

 

 

k

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2

 

e

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

3

 

 

y

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

4

 

w

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

5

o

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6

 

 

 

r

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

7d

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1. the process of dividing an atom in order to create energy

2. a radioactive substance in making nuclear power

3. the amount of substance that is present in something

4. substance which  is firm and hard and not a liquid or a gas

5. a machine used for producing nuclear energy, usually in the form of electricity

6. the harmful form of energy that is produced during nuclear reactions

7. a place where quantities of things are stored or kept safe

                            Key word____________________

        

  Exercise 16. Describing a graph.

 

Look at the graph which shows production of nuclear power from 1998. Before describing it answer the following questions:

When was the peak of production?

When the production was of 74%?

What was the production in 1999?

What was the production in 2003?

ü    Use the following phrases to describe the graph:

The production rises.

There is a fall in production of ….

There was a fall in production of ….

The production rises fast.

There is a sharp rise in production.

There was a sharp rise in production.

ü    Also you can use following words and word combinations:

rise, increase, decrease, go up, go down, fall, level, change, no change, sharply, suddenly, slightly and etc.

 

Exercise 17. Writing a report.

 

You are going to write a report on a theme “New projects for saving the environment”. Use the plan below to help you:

ü    Give your report a suitable title.

ü    Start with an introduction in which you tell the reader what your report is about.

ü    Describe the main environmental problems. Give as many details as possible.

ü    Describe the problems that industry caused.

ü    Give information about the new projects that are made for saving the environment. (For example: Clean Air Act Amendments, Clean Coal Technology, etc.)

ü    Conclusion. Say what could be done about the problems in the future.

Use the following expressions:   


I think it’s wrong to ...

I’m very worried about ...

The biggest problem today is ...       

         What can we do about ...?

         I think we should ...

         I don’t think people should…


 

Unit 10

Grammar: Conditional sentences

 

Conditional  Sentences

I. If new equipment replaces the present one, we will produce more devices than we produce now.

I. Если новое оборудование заменит существующее, то мы произведем больше устройств, чем мы производим сейчас.

II. If the situation permitted, we should test this device.

II. Если бы обстановка позволила, мы испытали бы этот прибор.

III. If the situation had permitted, we should have tested the device last week.

III. Если бы обстановка позволила, мы испытали бы этот прибор на прошлой неделе.

 

Exercise 1.Translate the sentences paying attention to the Conditionals.

 

1. There would be no difficulties now provided this problem (was considered, had been considered) properly at our last meeting. 2. If they had identified this substance at that time, they could (finish, have finished) the experiment long ago. 3. If you (modified, had modified) the conditions at the very beginning, you would have obtained better results. 4. If you (compare, will compare) these two forces, you will see that the difference is negligible. 5. You would compound these couples provided you (combined, combine) the vectors.   6. These two forces would not constitute a couple unless they (were, would be) equal in amount and opposite in direction. 7. If they (had, had had) enough time, we should have repeated our experiment yesterday. 8. If you (study, will study) this subject thoroughly, you will get a good mark.

 

Exercise 2.Translate the sentences paying attention to the Conditionals.

  

1. If it were necessary to increase the speed of this particular engine, it could be achieved by using a special device.  2.  If the engineer had been informed of the results before, he would have allowed you to repeat the test. 3. If we had used new methods, we would have saved a lot of time. 4. If the oil supply had stopped even for a moment, serious damage might have resulted. 5. If they receive all the necessary equipment, they will be able to carry out their experiment. 6. If you studied the physics of semiconductors, you would know the properties of the p-n junction. 7. If a wire were held against an electric body, electricity would flow along the wire to its other end. 8. If coal were not used as fuel, we should get more valuable products. 9. If you had applied this new method of work, we should have succeeded in obtaining better results. 10. They could have measured the voltage immediately, if they had connected a voltmeter to the circuit.

 

Exercise 3. Make the sentences complete by matching the two parts.

 

1. If the books on that subject were available in our library,

2. Were there no flow of current between A and B in any direction,

3. The current will flow around the circuit unless

4. Were the electromotive force alternating,

5. Were that liquid heated,

6. If the air within the cylinder were motionless,

 

a)     it would greatly expand.

b)    only a small proportion of the fuel would find enough oxygen.

c)     then A and B would be at the same potential.

d)    I would be able to make a good report.

e)     we break the circuit in some point

f)      the current would be alternative as well

 

Exercise 4. Translate the following groups of words.

 

petroleum-based diesel fuel, modern diesel engine, combusted fuel, high-tech equipment,  vegetable oil, "liquid solar energy”, oil mixed with the catalyst, sodium hydroxide, engine or heater, fuel or heating oil,  excellent lubricant, emissions of unburned hydrocarbons, positive fossil-energy ratio, fossil fuel energy, emissions of nitrogen oxides, combustion process, high concentrations, alternative fuel, combine biodiesel and petroleum-based diesel,  create a fuel with less sulfur and lead, high concentrations, toxic compounds such as benzene, toxic compounds,  standard oil-fired furnace or boiler

 

Exercise 5. Memorize the following words.

 


additive – добавка

adverse - неблагориятный

appeal - привлекательность

cancer – рак

to climb - подниматься

to derive–извлекать, ~ from происходить, произойти

lead - свинец

lye - щелок

offsetting – возмещать, возместить

to ship – перевозить, отправлять

to store – хранить, запасать

substitute – заменитель

sulfur - сера

susceptible–восприимчивый, чувствительный

widespread–широко распространенный


 

Text A

Biodiesel Homegrown Oil

 

Imagine a renewable, clean-burning fuel that can be produced from local crops and could power a large number of existing vehicles starting now. That fuel is biodiesel, which is made primarily of vegetable oil and alcohol and can be used in any modern diesel engine.

In the last few years, many farmers, environmentalists and other renewable energy advocates have begun promoting biodiesel as an alternative fuel that could replace at least a portion of the world's petroleum-based diesel fuel market. Using biodiesel is an idea with widespread appeal because it pollutes far less than petroleum-based diesel and could help reduce our need for foreign oil.

Although "diesel" is part of its name, pure biodiesel does not contain any petroleum-based diesel, also called "petrodiesel." Instead, biodiesel is created from organic matter. It can be made from virtually any vegetable oil, including Soy, corn, rapeseed (canola), peanut or sunflower as well as from recycled cooking oil.

Biodiesel has been called "liquid solar energy" because its energy content is derived from plants that capture solar energy during photosynthesis. The plants grown to produce biodiesel consume carbon dioxide (CO2), so they naturally balance most of the CO2 released when the fuel is combusted, offsetting a major contributing factor to global warming.

Using vegetable oil for fuel is not a new idea. When Rudolf Diesel invented the original diesel engine in the 1890s, he designed it to run on a wide range of fuels including vegetable oils. Although industrial-sized biodiesel facilities use high-tech equipment, the process is basically the same for a small-scale facility located in a garage or backyard shed.

Biodiesel can be used in any engine or heater that runs on diesel fuel or heating oil. Methanol is a fuel that is similar to ethanol, but it is used only in specialized vehicles. It can be made from wood, but is usually derived from natural gas.

Advantages:

s Can replace petroleum-based diesel in any modern diesel engine.

s Is an excellent lubricant that can increase engine life.

s Is free of lead, contains almost no sulfur or aromatics (toxic compounds such as benzene, toluene and xylene), and substantially reduces emissions of unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and particulate matter (soot), which have been linked to respiratory disease, cancer and other adverse health conditions. The production and use of biodiesel results in a 78 percent reduction in carbon dioxide emissions, according to a 1998 study from the U.S. Department of Energy and Department of Agriculture.

s Has a positive fossil-energy ratio, meaning the energy stored in biodiesel is greater than the fossil fuel energy required to replace it.

s Is safer to store and transport than petrodiesel fuel and actually can be shipped via courier (FedEx or UPS, for example) in small quantities because it is not considered a hazardous material.

s Can be used as a substitute or additive for home heating fuel, normally without any major modifications to a standard oil-fired furnace or boiler.

Disadvantages:

s Sometimes more expensive than petrodiesel, but the difference in cost is disappearing because of recent federal tax legislation and the rising cost of petroleum.

s Emissions of nitrogen oxides (a contributing factor in the formation of smog and ozone) are sometimes slightly greater with biodiesel when used as a vehicle fuel, but these emissions are lower when it is used as a heating fuel due to the different combustion process.

s "Clouds" at extremely cold temperatures, causing some cold weather challenges. Biodiesel is more susceptible to this problem than petrodiesel.

s Used in high concentrations, biodiesel will eventually soften rubber hoses and gaskets in older diesel engines (those made prior to 1994), resulting in leaks. Using biodiesel in these vehicles requires replacing these rubber parts.

s Will dissolve the petrodiesel deposits that coat the sides of old fuel tanks and fuel lines, possibly clogging the fuel filter (usually a one-time problem).

s In warm weather, biodiesel is more susceptible than petrodiesel to the growth of bacteria. Keeping water out of the fuel will help to eliminate this problem.

 

Exercise 6. Read and translate the following supplementary text.

 

Text B

Biofuels

 

In the race to slow global warming, transportation may be the trickiest problem. Every gallon of gasoline burned in the average vehicle sends 20 pounds of carbon dioxide out the tailpipe, according to the Environmental Protection Agency. Transportation accounts for 24 percent of CO emissions worldwide. With China and other developing countries putting cars on the road at a record pace, that global percentage is sure to climb. The only way to reduce vehicles' greenhouse-gas emissions is to make them dramatically more efficient or change their source of power.

Today's most popular alternative to gasoline is ethanol. In the U.S., ethanol is made almost exclusively from corn. Some economists worry that the popularity of corn-based ethanol could drive up the price of corn, slowing imports and raising the cost of food. Farm groups call that fear unfounded.

Today's cars can tolerate a gasoline blend that includes 10 percent ethanol. In some parts of the country, producers have long added small amounts of ethanol to gas to reduce emissions of smog-causing pollutants.

Still another bump in the ethanol road is that corn-based ethanol reduces the CO emissions that a given vehicle is responsible for by only about 10 percent, once you factor in the petroleum used in the farm equipment and the fertilizer used to grow and harvest the corn. Making ethanol from other plants or from agricultural waste, called cellulosic ethanol, can more significantly reduce greenhouse-gas emissions.

Cellulosic ethanol is made from high-fiber plant materials from cornstalks and agricultural plant wastes to crops grown specifically for ethanol production, such as woody plants. Friedman of the Union of Concerned Scientists said that cellulosic ethanol produces 80 to 90 percent fewer greenhouse-gas emissions than gasoline.

 

Exercise 7. Answer the questions.

 

       1. What type of fuel is described in the texts? 2. What is the main difference between petrodiesel and biodiesel? 3. How biofuels are produced?  4. Why biodiesel is called “liquid solar energy"? 5. Name the main advantages of biofuels? Why do automakers produce the flexible-fuel cars?

 

Exercise 8. Choose the correct variant.

 

1. … … …, which is commonly referred to as lye or caustic soda, is the same chemical used to unclog kitchen or bathroom drains.

a) potassium hydroxide

b) benzene, toluene and xylene

c) sodium hydroxide

2. Biodiesel is made primarily of ………, and can be used in any modern diesel engine.

a) petroleum-based diesel

b) vegetable oil and alcohol

3. The plants grown to produce biodiesel consume … … … .

a) carbon dioxide (CO2)

b) Straight Vegetable Oil (SVO)

4. In order to produce biofuel carefully measured amounts of vegetable oil are mixed with the … … … .

a) catalyst

b) ethanol or methanol.

5. Methanol is a fuel that is similar to ethanol, but it is used only in specialized vehicles. It can be made from wood, but is usually derived from … … .

a) oil

b) natural gas

c) hydrocarbons

 

Exercise 9. Fill in the blanks with the following words  and word combinations.

 

biofuel, shortages, fossil fuel, biological material, biofuel crops,

carbon source, solar energy industries, transport, deforestation, renewable

 

Biofuel (if cultivated, then also called agrofuel or agrifuel) can be broadly defined as solid, liquid, or gas fuel created by biological material, most commonly plants. This distinguishes it from …………., which is derived from long dead …………….. Biofuel is championed in America by Democrats.

Biofuel can be theoretically produced from any (biological) ……………. The most common by far is photosynthetic plants that capture …………. Many different plants and plant-derived materials are used for …………… manufacture.

Biofuels are used globally. Biofuel …………….are expanding in Europe, Asia and the Americas. The most common use for biofuels is automotive ………… (liquid fuels for transportation). Increased demand for biofuels, particularly in America and Europe has led to ……………. and food…………. This is increasingly making biofuels into a political issue throughout the world. Locations such as Indonesia are subject to deforestation and the accompanying displacement of indigenous peoples. In some areas use of pesticides for ………………are disrupting clean water supplies.

The use of …………biofuels in lieu of fossil fuels is said to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and increase energy security (but see Carbon emissions).

 

Exercise 10. Translate the sentences paying attention to the Conditionals.

 

1. Если сопротивление ниже, тока будет больше. 2. В случае если материал производит высокое сопротивление, мы полагаем, что он будет хорошим изолятором. 3. Между двумя телами не будет никакого электронного потока, если они связаны стеклянным прутом. 4. Если они не применят новые устройства, они не получат хороших результатов. 5. Если бы у нас было достаточно времени, мы бы повторили этот научный эксперимент. 6. Если бы две силы не были параллельны, они не составили бы пару. 7. Если бы эти данные были известны, мы бы смогли закончить эксперимент. 8. Если они не применят новые устройства, они не получат хороших результатов.  9.Они могли бы это сделать, если бы получили необходимое оборудование.

 

Exercise 11. Give the English equivalents to the prepositions and conjunctions in brackets and translate the sentences.

 

1. The radioactive pollution produced (в) a reactor has all three forms: gaseous, liquid and solid.  2. The beta particles are dangerous for man (так как) they penetrate deep (в) the matter. 3. There are two main differences (между) a nuclear power plant and a steam-electric power plant. The nuclear power plant uses a nuclear fuel (вместо) a fossil fuel, and it uses a reactor (вместо) a   boiler. 4. Pump turbine units are used (как для) pumping the water (так и для) driving electric generators.  5. The energy (для) a nuclear power plant comes (из) the heat released (во время) fissioning of uranium (в) a nuclear reactor.  6. (Из-за) their high fuel consumption gas turbines are more expensive to operate then steam turbines.

 

Exercise 12. Translate the following scientific expressions into Kazakh/Russian.

 


1.     The problem here to be studied …..

2.     We need to consider the problem of ….

3.     The article raises all sorts of problems ….

4.     We are facing the problem of …….

5.     We shall make a thorough study of ….

6.     At the discussion is ….

7.     The study of …….

8.     It requires a detailed study of …

9.     It requires a direct study of …

10. We turn our attention to a new and more urgent problem…


 

Exercise 13.  Biofuels.

Write your opinion about the future of biofuels.

Answer following questions before you start:

What do you think about biofuels?

Do you think using biofuels is effective? Why?

What do you think about the future of the biofuels?

The plan below can help you:

ü    Give some information about the past of biofuels. When they appeared? How are they made?

ü    Write about advantages of the biofuels.

ü    Write about the disadvantages of the biofuels.

ü    Write your own opinion about the biofuels.

ü    Conclusion. Your hopes and ideas about the future of biofuels.

 

Grammar revision

 

Participle (Причастие)

 

Причастие является неличной  формой глагола, в которой сочетаются признаки прилагательного или наречия с признаками глагола. В английском языке существуют два вида причастий: Participle I и Participle IIParticiple I может иметь простую (preparing) и сложную/аналитическую (having prepared, being prepared) формы. Participle II имеет только простую форму (prepared, done).

Participle I выполняет в предложении следующие самостоятельные функции:

1) Participle I (PI) в функции определения характеризует предмет, производящий действие, отвечает на вопрос какой? ( какая?, какое?, какие?) и может выражать не только одновременность с действием глагола-сказуемого, но и одновременность с моментом речи. Participle I может находится как перед определяемым словом (boiling water), так и после определяемого слова (the water boiling). PI в функции определения соответствует причастию действительного залога в русском языке и оканчивается на – щий(-щийся),-щая, -щее, -щие, иногда вший (вшие).

2) Participle I в функции обстоятельства стоит чаще всего в начале предложения, отвечает на вопросы how?, when?, как?, когда? и переводится на  русский  язык  деепричастием несовершенного вида, оканчивающимся на -а, -я. Например: читая, переводя. Сходство с придаточным предложением заключается в том, что перед Participle I в функции обстоятельства могут стоять союзы when или while. Такие причастные обороты выражают временные или причинные отношения. Сочетание Participle I  этими союзами переводится на русский язык либо деепричастным оборотом с опущением союза, либо придаточным предложением, которое начинается с союзов когда, в то время как. В качестве подлежащего этого предложения употребляется существительное, стоящее за этим оборотом, или заменяющее его личное местоимение.

 

While studying a foreign language students should learn new words.

Изучая иностранный язык, студенты должны учить новые слова.

Когда студенты изучают иностранный язык, они должны учить новые слова.

При изучении иностранного языка студенты должны учить новые слова.

Participle II. Ed-формы или (3fV). Эти формы употребляются для образования личных временных форм (для образования перфектных времен и пассива). Participle II выполняет в предложении следующие самостоятельные функции:

1)  Participle II  в функции определения отвечает на вопрос: what? какой?  и ставится перед определяемым словом (между артиклем или другим определителем и существительным) или после определяемого слова.  Переводится на русский язык причастиями страдательного залога совершенного и несовершенного  вида с суффиксами – окончаниями -нный, -емый, -имый, -тый, а также причастиями, образованными от возвратных глаголов: - invented-изобретенный, изобретаемый.  Правильный перевод определяется контекстом. Например: the machine designed (машина сконструированная).

2) Перед Participle II в функции обстоятельства иногда могут стоять союзы if, unless, whenthough. В таком случае конструкция переводится на русский язык безличным обстоятельственным придаточным предложением, в котором подлежащее то же, что и в главном предложении.

 

When completed, the project must meet the specifications.

По окончании проект должен удовлетворять техническим требованиям.

 

Перевод Participle II на русский язык иногда вызывает затруднения, ввиду того, что он не отделяется запятой от определяемого им существительного, а также вследствие того, что Participle II всех правильных и многих неправильных глаголов совпадает по форме с Past Indefinite. Поэтому прежде чем переводить предложение, необходимо проанализировать его и точно установить сказуемое, т.е. глагол в личной форме.

 

Сложные (аналитические) формы причастий и способы их перевода

 

Participle I  Passive образуется сочетанием Participle I Active от глагола to be (being) и Participle II  смыслового глагола (heated). Participle I Passive выражает действие, происходящее одновременно с действием, выраженным личной формой глагола-сказуемого и может выполнять следующие функции:

1) определения и переводится на русский язык причастием настоящего времени страдательного залога или определительным придаточным предложением.

The bridge being built across the river is going to be beautiful.

Мост, строящийся (который строится) через реку, будет очень красивым

 

2) обстоятельства (времени, причины) и переводится на русский язык обстоятельственным придаточным предложением.

Being built of reinforced concrete the house will be durable.

Так как дом строится из железобетона, он будет прочным.

 

Perfect Participle Active образуется сочетанием Participle I от глагола to have (having) и Participle II смыслового глагола (finished). Perfect Participle Passive образуется сочетанием Perfect Participle Active (having been) и Participle II смыслового глагола (finished).

Perfect Participle Active выражает действие, которое предшествовало действию, выраженному сказуемым, выполняет функцию обстоятельства времени (причины) и переводится на русский язык деепричастием совершенного вида.

 

Having finished the experiment he put down the results.

Закончив эксперимент, он записал результаты.

 

Perfect Participle Passive, выполняя функцию обстоятельства (времени, причины) выражает действие, предшествовавшее действию глагола-сказуемого и переводится обстоятельственным придаточным предложением. В качестве подлежащего русского придаточного предложения употребляется подлежащее английского предложения (зависимый причастный оборот).

 

Having been published in 1687 Newton’s laws of motion are still the basis for research.

Хотя законы движения Ньютона  были опубликованы в 1687 году, они все еще остаются основой для исследования.

 

The Absolute Participle Construction

(Независимый причастный оборот)

 

Независимый причастный оборот (The Absolute Participle Construction) отличается от зависимого тем, что имеет собственное подлежащее, выраженное существительным в общем падеже или личным местоимением в форме именительного падежа.  Независимый причастный оборот стоит в начале, либо в конце  предложения и отделяется запятой. На русский язык этот оборот переводится придаточным обстоятельственным предложением, начинающимся союзами, если, так как, когда, после того, как и др., если оборот предшествует подлежащему со сказуемым, выраженному личной формой глагола.

Например: The energy sources of the world decreasing, the scientists must find new sources of energy. Так как энергетические источники мира уменьшаются, ученые должны найти новые источники энергии.

В данном примере при Participle I decreasing имеется подлежащее, не связанное с подлежащим the scientists. Причастие играет роль сказуемого по отношению к подлежащему energy sources. Таким образом, этот оборот имеет самостоятельное подлежащее, именно поэтому он называется самостоятельным причастным оборотом и  выражает время, причину или сопутствующие обстоятельства.

Самостоятельный причастный оборот, стоящий в конце предложения, часто встречается в технических текстах, и  переводится обычно на русский язык сложносочиненным предложением с союзами причем, а, и, но.

Например: There are different sources of energy, the sun being an unlimited   source of all forms of energy. Существуют различные источники энергии, и солнце является неограниченным источником энергии.

Узнать самостоятельный причастный оборот в тексте можно по следующим признакам: 1) перед причастием стоит существительное без предлога или местоимение в именительном падеже; 2) самостоятельный причастный оборот всегда отделен запятой.

 

The Gerundерундий)

 

Герундий - неличная  форма глагола,  имеющая грамматические особенности, как глагола, так и существительного и всегда выражающая действие как развивающийся процесс (burning   горение, heating   нагревание).

 

Indefinite

Active

Passive

writing

being written

Perfect

having written

having been written

 

В функции подлежащего, определения, именной части сказуемого и прямого дополнения герундий переводится существительным или инфинитивом. В функции предложного дополнения герундий переводится существительным или придаточным предложением. В функции обстоятельства перед герундием всегда стоит один из следующих предлогов after, before, on, at, in, for, by, without и др. Герундий в функции  обстоятельства может переводится существительным с предлогом, деепричастием или придаточным предложением.

I.Синтаксические функции герундия в предложении и способы перевода:

1) подлежащее:

Measuring resistance is necessary in many experiments.

Измерение сопротивления необходимо для большинства экспериментов.

      

2) именная часть составного именного сказуемого:

The function of a car computer is detecting and summing up the information about the road conditions.

Назначение компьютера автомобиля – обнаружение и оценивание  информации о дорожных условиях.

3) дополнение:

а) прямое дополнение:

I like reading technical books.

Я люблю читать   технические книги.

 

б) предложное  дополнение:

The new method of making these engines has been approved of by the engineers.

Новый метод (способ) производства этих машин был одобрен  инженерами.

 

1)     определение:

а) с предлогом of (for)

Various methods of cooling transformers are adopted in practice.

В практике применяются различные методы охлаждения трансформатора.

 

б) именем существительным в притяжательном или общем падеже:

I like your post-graduate’s making experiments.

Мне нравится  проведение опытов вашим аспирантом (как ваш аспирант проводит опыты).

 

5) обстоятельство: 

After receiving good results they stopped experiments.

Получив (после того как получили) хорошие результаты, они прекратили эксперименты.

 

Образование и употребление сложных форм герундия

 

Indefinite Gerund Passive oобразуется сочетанием Indefinite Gerund Active от глагола to be (being) и Participle II смыслового глагола: being asked.

Perfect Gerund Active образуется сочетанием Indefinite Gerund от глагола to have и Participle II смыслового глагола: having asked.

Perfect Gerund Passive образуется сочетанием Perfect Gerund Active от глагола to be, т.е. having been и Participle II смыслового глагола: having been asked.

Gerund Indefinite Active и Passive выражает действие, одновременное с действием, выраженным сказуемым, и иногда выражает действие, относящееся к будущему.

He insists on his being sent on a conference.

Он говорит мне о том, что завтра поедет на конференцию.

 

Perfect Gerund Active и Passive выражает действие, предшествовавшее действию, выраженному сказуемым.

 

He went away without having told us the necessary information.

Он ушел, не сообщив нам необходимых сведений.

 

 

Сложные формы герундия чаще всего переводятся придаточным предложением. Indefinite Gerund, Active, Passive, Perfect Gerund Active и Passive переводятся на русский язык придаточным предложением, в котором притяжательное местоимение или существительное, стоящее перед герундием, переводится на русский язык личным местоимением или существительным в функции подлежащего придаточного предложения, а герундий глаголом в личной форме. 

Герундиальный оборот представляет собой сочетание притяжательного местоимения или существительного в притяжательном падеже с неличной формой глагола (герундием). Такой оборот эквивалентен придаточному предложению, чаще всего дополнительному, а наличие перед герундием существительного в притяжательном падеже или в общем падеже или притяжательного местоимения является показателем герундиального оборота. Следующие наиболее употребительные слова вводят придаточные предложения при переводе на русский язык герундиального оборота: о том, чтобы… ; на том, чтобы…; в том, что…; то… что; тем… что; что…).

 

Infinitive (Инфинитив)

 

Инфинитив относится к неличным формам глагола.  Наиболее типичными свойствами инфинитива как глагола является способность его выражать характер действия (длительность, законченность) и залог.  Инфинитив не может выражать лицо, число и наклонение. Признаком инфинитива является частица to: Indefinite Infinitive Active - to ask (спрашивать).

 

Образование и употребление форм инфинитива

 

Выражают действие, одновременное с действием, выраженным глаголом-сказуемым

 

Active

Passive

Indefinite

to ask

to be asked

Continuous

to be asking

-

Выражают действие, предшествовавшее действию, выраженному глаголом-сказуемым

Perfect

to have asked

to have been asked

Perfect Continuous

to have been asking

-

 

Indefinite Infinitive Passive oобразуется из простой формы инфинитива (Indefinite Infinitive) глагола to be+Participle II смыслового глагола: to be asked.  

Continuous Infinitive образуется из простой формы инфинитива глагола to be+ Participle I смыслового глагола: to be asking (спрашивать).

Perfect Infinitive Active oобразуется из простой формы инфинитива глагола to have+Participle II смыслового глагола: to have asked

Perfect Infinitive Passive oобразуется из Perfect Infinitive от глагола to be, то есть to have been +Participle II смыслового глагола: to have been asked.

Perfect Continuous Infinitive образуется из Perfect Infinitive от глагола to be, то есть to have been+Participle I:  to have been asking.

Indefinite Infinitive (Active и Passive) – простая форма инфинитива, которая соответствует русской неопределенной форме глагола как совершенного, так и несовершенного вида. Форма Indefinite обозначает действие, одновременное действию, выраженному глаголом-сказуемым

 

I want to show you a new device.

(Active)

Я хочу показать Вам новый прибор.

I want to be shown a new device.

(Passive)

Я хочу, чтобы мне показали новый прибор.

We were to translate that article yesterday.

Мы должны были перевести эту статью вчера.

The article was to be translated yesterday.

Статью надо было перевести вчера.

 

Passive Infinitive чаще всего переводится на русский язык дополнительным придаточным предложением, которое начинается союзами что, чтобы. Инфинитив в Active и Passive относится к будущему времени, если стоит после модальных глаголов may, should, ought и глаголов to hope, to intend, to think.

Инфинитив в форме Perfect Infinitive (Active и Passive) обозначает действие, которое предшествовало действию, выраженному глаголом- сказуемым. Сложные формы инфинитива переводятся дополнительными придаточными предложениями, в которых  формы Perfect передаются глаголами прошедшего времени, так как они выражают действие, предшествовавшее действию, выраженному глаголом-сказуемым.

 

We are happy to have taken part in the construction of the new power station in Aktay.

Мы счастливы, что приняли участие в строительстве новой энергостанции  в Актау.

 

Наряду с формами Indefinite и Perfect инфинитив может иметь формы Continuous и Perfect Continuous. Continuous Infinitive имеет только активную форму и обозначает действие длительного характера, одновременное с действием, выраженным глаголом-сказуемым.

 

He was to be translating that article at that time.

В это время ему надо было переводить эту статью.

 

Perfect Continuous Infinitive выражает действие, которое длилось в течение определенного периода времени до настоящего момента и переводится настоящим временем, так же как и глагол в форме Present Perfect Continuous.

I am glad to have been working at the power station all these years.

Я рад, что работаю на энергостанции все эти годы.

 

Функции инфинитива   в предложении

Инфинитив может выполнять следующие функции в предложении:

1)     подлежащего:

To master this speciality is not an easy thing.

Овладеть (овладение) этой специальностью – нелегкое дело.

 

2) дополнения:

He likes to speak with us on this subject.

Он любит говорить с нами по этому вопросу.

 

3) части сказуемого (простого и составного):

а) вместе со вспомогательным или модальным глаголом инфинитив  входит в состав простого глагольного сказуемого

They will work there.

Они будут там работать.

We can work.

Мы можем работать.

 

б) составное именное сказуемое после подлежащего, выраженного словами:  aim, object, purpose, task, way, method, plan, wish, intention, problem, practice, difficulty. В этом случае, личная форма глагола to be перед инфинитивом смыслового глагола в активной форме не выражает долженствования, а является глаголом-связкой и переводится  на русский язык как заключается в том, чтобы (состоит в том, чтобы),  либо совсем не переводится.

The aim of our research work is to find the necessary data to proceed with our experiments.

Цель нашей исследовательской работы заключается  в том, чтобы найти необходимые данные для продолжения наших опытов.

 

4) в функции обстоятельства цели инфинитив занимает место в конце предложения или в начале предложения, до подлежащего, иногда вводится союзом in order to (для того чтобы).

To  know English well you have to work hard.

Для того чтобы знать английский язык хорошо, вы должны усердно работать.

This method was so accurate as to give reliable results.

Этот метод был такой точный, что дал надежные результаты.

 

Необходимо помнить, что инфинитив является близкой к существительному формой и поэтому в функции обстоятельства цели он может переводиться существительным с предлогам для.

To improve my knowledge of English read English books every day.

Для улучшения знания английского языка я ежедневно читаю английские книги.

 

5) инфинитив в функции определения имеет модальный  оттенок и выражает долженствование, возможность. Если инфинитив стоит после существительного, имеющего конкретное значение, он может выражать будущее время.

 

The material to be used has been carefully examined.

Вещество, которое будет применяться, тщательно исследовано.

 

Если определение выражено инфинитивом, то на русский язык оно переводится определительным придаточным предложением, выражающим долженствование, возможность или будущее время и существительным с предлогом (существительным в родительном падеже).

 

He spoke about the plan to increase the production of the plant.

Он говорил о плане увеличения выпуска продукции завода.

 

Инфинитив в функции определения после слов  the first, the last переводится глаголом в личной  форме в том времени, в котором  стоит глагол-сказуемое английского предложения.

 

This student was the last to answer the teacher’s question.

Этот студент последним ответил на вопрос преподавателя.

 

The Objective Infinitive Construction. The Subjective Infinitive Construction (Объектный и Субъектный Инфинитивный Обороты)

 

I. The Objective Infinitive Construction (сложное дополнение) – это сочетание имени существительного в общем падеже или местоимения в объектном падеже с инфинитивом глагола. Предложение, содержащее сложное дополнение, переводится на  русский язык придаточным дополнительным предложением, вводимым союзами: что, чтобы, как. Объектный инфинитивный оборот (сложное дополнение) употребляется после глаголов, выражающих:

1) желание и потребность: to want (хотеть, требовать, нуждаться); to wish, to desire (желать); to like (хотеть).

The professor wanted the students to make a thorough study of the book.

Профессор хотел, чтобы студенты тщательно изучили эту книгу.

Would you like me to translate this text?

Хотели бы вы, чтобы я перевел этот текст?

 

2) предположение, мнение и суждение: to suppose (предполагать); to expect (ожидать);  to consider (считать, полагать); to assume, to believe,  to hold  (полагать).

They expect the conference to be over soon.

Они предполагают, что конференция скоро закончится.

 

3) физическое восприятие и ощущение: to watch, to observe (наблюдать); to notice (замечать); to see (видеть); to hear  (слышать);


to feel  (ощущать, чувствовать). После всех этих глаголов, а также после глаголов to make и to cause инфинитив употребляется без частицы to.

The first-year students heard the professor speak about his research at the conference.

Студенты первого курса слышали, как профессор говорил о своем исследовании на конференции.

 

4) знание, осведомленность, утверждение, констатацию факта и сообщение другим о каком-нибудь факте: to find (находить, обнаруживать); to note (отмечать); to state (указывать, устанавливать);  to claim   (утверждать; to show  (показывать, доказывать); to think  (полагать, думать); to know (знать); to think (думать); to understand (понимать); to report (сообщать); to show (показывать); to declare (заявлять).

 

I know them to have fulfilled their work ahead of time.

Я знаю, что они выполнили свою работу  досрочно.

 

5)     принуждение, приказ, разрешение или запрет: to cause  (причинять, вызывать);  to force    (вынуждать); to getto make (заставлять); to command, to  order (приказывать), а также просьбу, позволение или разрешение: to ask (просить), to allow  (позволять), to permit  (разрешать), to enable  (давать возможность), to request  (просить, вежливо приказывать)

 

Our English teacher makes us learn the words for every lesson.

Наш преподаватель английского языка заставляет нас учить слова к каждому занятию.

The engineer allowed the new engine to be tested.

Инженер разрешил испытывать новый двигатель.

 

II. The Subjective Infinitive Construction (Субъектный инфинитивный оборот) употребляется:

1)  с глаголами, обозначающими просьбу, приказание, познавательные процессы: to say (говорить); to see (видеть); to hear  (слышать);  to state (указывать, устанавливать); to find (находить, обнаруживать); to claim   (утверждать); to show (показывать, доказывать); to think (полагать, думать); to know (знать);  to suppose (предполагать); to expect (ожидать, полагать); to report (сообщать); to believe (полагать); to take (полагать); to assume  (допускать); to hold (полагать, считать). Указанные глаголы могут использоваться в сочетании с модальными глаголами и стоять в любом времени в страдательном залоге.

 


The experiment is expected to be over soon.

Предполагают, что эксперимент скоро закончится.

 

2) в сочетании с некоторыми непереходными глаголами, которые по своему значению также связаны с познавательными процессами и могут стоять в любом времени в действительном залоге: to appear, to seem казаться, to prove, to turn out  оказаться, to happen случаться.

 

The experiment proved to be a success.

The method appears to be of some interest.

Опыт оказался удачным.

Этот метод, по-видимому, представляет интерес.

 

3) со сказуемым, выраженным личной формой глагола-связки to be и прилагательным: likely вероятный, unlikely маловероятный (вряд ли), certain, sure верный, надежный, несомненный.

This letter is unlikely to reach them tomorrow.

It is unlikely that the letter will reach them tomorrow.

Маловероятно (вряд ли), что письмо дойдет до него завтра.

 

Complex Sentence (Сложное предложение)

 

I. Подчинение при помощи союза. Сложное предложение состоит из нескольких простых предложений, которые как по смыслу, так и грамматически объединяются в единое предложение. Сложные предложения делятся на сложносочиненные и сложноподчиненные предложения.

Сложносочиненное предложение состоит из простых предложений, каждое из которых сохраняет значение самостоятельного утверждения. Такие предложения не зависят друг от друга и могут отделяться запятой. Средством связи таких предложений могут служить сочинительные союзы  and (и), but (но), or (или)   и др.

The methods were improved, and

the productivity increased.

Методы были усовершенствованы, и производительность увеличилась.

 

Сложноподчиненное предложение состоят из главного (сохраняет значение самостоятельного утверждения) и придаточного (служит пояснением для главного). Присоединяются придаточные предложения союзными словами – местоимениями и наречиями who (кто), what (что), which, that (который), where (где), when (когда) и др., а также подчинительными союзами  that (что), as (так как), because (потому что), if (если) и др.

We apply the new methods that are very efficient.

Мы применяем новые методы,  которые очень эффективны.

 

Бессоюзные присоединение могут придаточного предложения к главному. Придаточные предложения могут присоединяться к главному без союза.

Sequence of Tenses (Согласование времен)

 

При переводе с английского языка на русский или с  русского на английский  необходимо учитывать различия между грамматическим строем двух сопоставляемых языков. Если глагол-сказуемое главного предложения стоит в настоящем времени, то глагол-сказуемое придаточного предложения может стоять в  любом, требуемом по смыслу, времени.

 

Главное предложение

Придаточное

He says that,

Он говорит, что

he is busy. (он занят)

he was busy yesterday. (он был занят вчера)

he will be busy tomorrow. (он будет занят завтра)

 

1) Если же сказуемое главного предложения стоит в прошедшем времени, то по правилу согласования времен, сказуемое дополнительного придаточного предложения также должно стоять в одном из прошедших времен. Если действия, выраженные сказуемыми обоих предложений, совершаются  одновременно, то в придаточном предложении глагол-сказуемое употребляется в форме  Past Indefinite или Past Continuous, которые  в данном случае обычно переводятся на русский язык глаголом в форме настоящего времени.

Главное предложение

Придаточное

He said that,

Он сказал, что

he was preparing the scientific report.

он готовит научный доклад.

 

2) Если действие, выраженное сказуемым придаточного предложения, предшествовало действию, выраженному сказуемым главного предложения, то в придаточном предложении употребляется Past Perfect или Past Perfect Continuous, которое всегда переводится глаголом в форме прошедшего времени.

Главное предложение

Придаточное

He said that,

Он сказал, что

he had been busy yesterday.

он был занят вчера.

 

3) Если в придаточном предложении речь идет о будущем, то употребляется  формы should и  would вместо shall и  will. Эта форма английского глагола называется Future-in-the-Past (будущее в прошедшем) и переводится глаголом в будущем времени.

 Главное предложение

Придаточное

He said that,

Он сказал, что

he would work at a plant.

он будет работать на заводе.

 

Conditional  Sentences (Условные предложения)

 

Условные предложения могут выражать реальные, малове­роятные и нереальные условия. В зависимости от характера усло­вия условные предложения принято подразделять на условные предложения первого типа (реальные), второго типа (маловероятные условия) и третьего типа (нереальные условия). Условные придаточные предложения присоединяются к главному предложению при помощи следующих союзов if (если), unless (если не), provided, providing (that) (при условии что; при условии если).

1.Условные предложения первого типа. Условие, содержащееся в условном придаточном предложе­нии, рассматривается говорящим как реально предполагаемый факт, относящийся к настоящему, прошедшему или будущему времени. В этом случае сказуемое главного предложения выражено глаголом в форме будущего времени, а в условном пред­ложении глагол употребляется в форме настоящего времени. Сказуемые главного и придаточного предложений  выражаются глаголами в формах изъявительного на­клонения. Обе глагольные формы переводятся на русский язык глаголами в будущем времени. 

Условное придаточное предложение  (Present Indefinite)

Главное предложение

(Future Indefinite)

If you help me,

Если вы поможете мне,

I shall repair the engine in an hour.

я отремонтирую двигатель в течение часа.

 

2. Условные предложения второго типа выражают нереальное предположение, малую вероятность или невозможность осуществления действия в настоящем или будущем времени. В глав­ном предложении используется сочетание should (would, might, could) с простой формой инфинитива (Indefinite Infinitive) смыслового глагола без частицы to. В условном предложении используется либо were для глагола to be для всех лиц и чисел, либо употребляется форма, совпадающая с Past Indefinite (для всех других глаголов). Сказуемые и главного и придаточного предложения  употребляются в сослагательном наклонении и переводятся формой прошедшего времени с части­цей бы.

 

Условное придаточное предложение (Past Indefinite)

Главное предложение should(would, might, could) + Indefinite Infinitive

If the situation permitted,

Если бы обстановка позволила,

we should test this device.

мы испытали бы этот прибор.

 

3. Условные предложения третьего типа. Условие, содержащееся в условном придаточном предложе­нии, рассматривается говорящим как неосуществимое предположение, так как оно относится к прошлому. Сказуемое главного предложения вы­ражается сочетанием should (would, might, could) с Perfect Infinitive смыслового глагола,  а сказуемое условного придаточного предложения - формой прошедшего времени сослагательного наклонения Past Perfect. На русский язык глагол-сказуемое условного придаточного предложе­ния переводится глаголом в сослагательном наклонении с части­цей бы (в русском языке не отличается от условного придаточного предложения второго типа).

 

Условное придаточное предложение (Past Perfect)

Главное предложение should(would, might, could) + Perfect Infinitive

If the situation had permitted,

Если бы обстановка позволила,

we should have tested  the device.

мы испытали бы этот прибор.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Список литературы

 

1.     Гейлер Л.Б., Дозоров Н.И. Англо-русский электротехнический словарь.- М.: Гос. изд-во физико-математ. литературы, 1961. – 710 с.

2.     Каулсон Д., Рэнкин Н., Томсон Д. Англо-русский словарь.– М.:Изд-во Радуга, 1995. – 623с.

3.     Новицкая Т.М., Кучин Н.Д. Практическая грамматика английского языка. – М.:Высш.школа, 1979. – 415с.

4.     Щавелева Е.Н. How to make a scientific speech.М.:Кнорус, 2007. – 91с.

5.     www.epnet.com

6.     www.wikipedia.com

Содержание  

Предисловие. 3

Unit 1. 6

Unit 2. 11

Unit 3. 19

Unit 4. 26

Unit 5. 34

Unit 6. 41

Unit 7. 46

Unit 8. 52

Unit 9. 58

Unit 10. 66

Grammar revision. 73

Список литературы.. 87