Шет тілдері кафедрасы
Ағылшын
тілі
Техникалық мәтіндер
негізінде студенттердің оқу және
сөйлеу іскерліктерін дамытуға
арналған әдістемелік нұсқаулар
Aлматы
2003
ҚҰРАСТЫРУШЫЛАР:У.Ж. Жумабекова, С.М.
Нарбаев. Ағылшын тілі. Техникалық мәтіндер негізінде
студенттердің оқу және сөйлеу іскерліктерін
дамытуға арналған әдістемелік нұсқаулар -
Алматы:АЭжБИ,2003 –3 б.
Әдістемелік
нұсқаулар студенттердің оқу және сөйлеу
іскерліктерін техникалық мәтіндер негізінде дамытуға арналѓан. Бұл нұсқауларда
арнайы іріктеліп алынған техникалық мәтіндер және сол
мәтіндерді жан-жақты қарастыруға арналѓан
жаттығулар берілген.
Пікір жазушы: шет тілдер
кафедрасы меңгерушісі Жакиева
К.Р.
Алматы
энергетика және байланыс институтының жоспары бойынша 2003ж.
басылған
Ó
Алматы энергетика
және байланыс институты,2003ж.
Striving for Energy self-sufficiency
Some new words
consume v. -
пайдалану
sedimentary adj. – т±ндырмалы
survey v. - зерттеу
increase v. - кµбейту
grid n. - энергетикалыќ ж‰йе
link v.
- байланыстыру
up-grade n. -
µсім
schedule v. - тізімін жасау
thus for adv. - б‰гінге шейін
deposit n. - кен орыны
strive (for) v. - талпыну
obtain v.
- алу
consequence n.
– нєтижесі
distribution n.
- бµлу
·
Мєтініді оќымас б±рын мына сµздерге т‰сініктеме
беріњіз (дефиниция):
1.
infrastructure
2.
network
3.
a highly integrated sector
4.
internal market
5.
management
Striving for Energy self-sufficiency
After Russia and the Ukraine, Kazakhstan
is the third largest energy producer among the former Soviet republics. Its
share of the former Union’s overall energy production in the eighties stood at
about 51/2 per cent. The major primary
energy source is coal, which accounts for 50-55 per cent of the primary energy
consumed in the republic. Petroleum takes second place with about one-third of
the total, followed by natural gas with some 13-15 per cent.
Thus far, 169 hydrocarbon
deposits have been discovered in the republic, of which 87 are oil fields, 17
gas fields, 30 gas and oil, 25 condensation oil and gas, and 10 condensation
oil. These are concentrated in western Kazakhstan. Besides the known oil and
gas basins, there are several sedimentary basins in Kazakhstan which have
either been inadequately examined, or not surveyed at all. These include
northern Turgay, Priaralsk, central Syrdarjya, Shu-Sarysu, Ili, Balkash, south
Dzhungar, Alakol, Zaysan and the Priyrtysh depression.
Despite being rich in
indigenous source and an important fuel and power producer, Kazakhstan is a net
importer of energy. This anomalous situation is the result of three main
factors.
Firstly, Kazakhstan’s energy
sectors is highly integrated with the neighboring republics. Energy
distribution was not planned in terms of the requirements for an “internal
market” for Kazakhstan, but rather to satisfy demand at the closest consumption
area, anywhere in the former Soviet Union. Secondly, as a result of the
investment priorities drawn up in Moscow as well as the lack of hard currency,
the oil and gas industry was increasingly unable to obtain access to the most
modern technology. As a consequence, old equipment and the inadequate maintenance
of the existing infrastructure increased inefficiency and resulted in
Kazakhstan producing far bellow its potential. Thirdly, the price structure for
energy was highly distorted. This weakened the incentive to focus on energy
savings and effectively subsidies the inefficient use of available resource.
The government has
consequently decided on a programme which should make the country energy
self-sufficient by the year 2000. This will be done by an all-round improvement
in energy management: identifying more efficient ways of meeting the country’s
energy needs and increasing the local exploitation of energy source.
Electricity
Kazakhstan’s electricity
supply is carried across two completely separate networks. In the north, the
grid links up with the Russian network, whereas in the south the grid is linked
to the Central Asian network. Although Kazakhstan also exports electricity, it
is currently required to import about 30 per cent of its electricity
requirement.
About 80 per cent of the
electricity is generated from coal by the country’s 54 coal-fired power
stations, although the aim is to increasingly make use of gas-powered stations.
There are also 5 hydro-electric facilities. The only nuclear power station is
located on the Caspian coast. Most of the power stations are old and will have
to be replaced or up-graded. Kazakhstanenergo, the state-owned electricity
utility, which is scheduled to be privatized around 1996, has signed an
exchange agreement with Cincinnati Gas &Electric which will provide advice
on how to compete in an open-marker environment.
1.Мына с±раќтарды аѓылшын тіліне аударыњыз жєне мєтінді пайдаланып жауап
беріњіз:
1.
Ќазаќстанда негізгі энергия кµзі неден µндірілуде?
2.
Негізгі м±най кен орындары ќайда орналасќан?
3.
Ќазаќстан электр энергиясын импорт±а шыѓарады ма?
4.
Неге Ќазаќстанныњ энергетикалыќ ж‰йесі кµрші елдерге тєуелді?
5.
‡кімет ќандай баѓдарлама жасады?
6.
Ќанша пайыз энергия кµмірден µндірілуде?
2.Мына сµйлемдерді ќазаќ тіліне аударыњыз:
1.
Kazakhstan is rich in natural resource: coal, iron ore, oil and gas.
2.
80 % of thermal power plants use coal burning, the rest use gas and fuel
oil.
3.
Kazakhstan with its huge raw resources is nevertheless becoming more and
more depended on outside suppliers.
4.
It was planned to satisfy demand at the closest consumption area
anywhere in the former Soviet Union.
5.
Our government decided to construct a new nuclear power plant.
3.Мына
диалогты толыќтырыњыз:
A.---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
B. There are such power plants in Kazakhstan: the nuclear power plant,
the thermal power plant and the hydro power plant.
A.----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
B.91% of
electric power is produced by the thermal power plants, 8% by hydro power
plants and less than 1% by the nuclear power plants.
A.----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
B.83% of
thermal power plants use coal burning, the rest use gas and fuel oil.
A.----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
B.
Kazakhstan with his huge row materials
is nevertheless becoming more and more dependent on outside suppliers of
electric power.
A.----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
B. During recent
year, the majority of hydro and heat power plants as well as heat and electric
supply systems have been privatized or taken in concession.
A.----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
B. In order to
solve this problem in 1997, the government established KEGOC.
A.----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
B. There are
also regional distribution companies.
A.----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
B. The
Kazakhstan companies operating the national electric system has the highest
credit rating.
A.----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
B. Our
Government has planned to build the nuclear power plant in Balkhash.
A.----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
B. I think that our natural resources enable us to develop the branch of
power engineering in our country.
A.------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.Мєтіннен
Perfect Tense бар сµйлемдерді табыњыз жєне Perfect Tense б±л сµйлемде
пайдаланылу себебін т‰сіндіріњіз.
5.Мєтіннен Gerund
бар сµйлемдерді табыњыз жєне оныњ д±рыс аударылуына кµњіл бµліњіз.
6.Мына
сµздердіњ антонимін жєне синонимін беріњіз:
|
Synonym |
Antonyum |
to require |
to demand |
|
to make |
|
|
to use |
|
|
major |
|
|
producer |
|
|
to survey |
|
|
up-grade |
|
|
History
of Hydro Power
Some new words
wheel n.
- дµњгелек
unveil
v. - ойлап табу, жасап шыѓару
thereafter adv. -
содан соњ
reliable adj. -
сенімді
majority n.
- негізгі бµлімі
involve v. - ќ±рамына енгізу,ќатыстыру
flood
n.
- су тасќыны
provide v. -
қамтамасыз ету
impact
n. -
әсері
Мєтінді
оќымас б±рын мына
сµздер мен сµз тіркестерін сµздікті
пайдалана отырып
аударыњыз:
1.incandescent
light blub fossil fired plants
2.
medium sized hydro-electric
generating stations
3.
expansion
4.
a constant supply of electricity
History of Hydro Power
The first use of moving water to produce electricity was a water wheel on the Fox river in Wisconsin in 1882. Two years after Thomas Edison unveiled the incandescent light bulb. The first hydro electric power plant at Niagara Falls was completed shortly thereafter. Hydro-power continued to play a major role in the expansion of electrical service in this century, both in North America and around the world. Contemporary Hydro-electric power plants generate anywhere from a few kW, enough for a single house, to thousands of MW, power enough to supply a large city.
Hydro-electric power plants were much
more reliable and efficient than
the fossil fuel fired plants. This resulted in a poliferation of small to medium sized
hydro-electric generating stations
distributed wherever there was supply of moving water and a need
for electricity.
The
majority of these power plants involved large dams, which flooded
vast areas of land to provide
water to storage and a
constant supply of electricity. The environmental impacts of
such large hydro projects are being identified as a
cause for concern. It is becoming
increasingly difficult for
developers to build new
dams because of opposition from
environmentalsists and
people living on the land to be
flooded.
1.Мына
с±раќтарѓа жауап беріњіз:
1.When and where
was the first
use of hydro power?
2.
When was the incandescent light
bulb unveiled?
3.
Hydro-electric power plants were much
more reliable, weren’t they?
4.
Why is it becoming increasingly difficult
for developers to build
new dams?
2.Мына
сµйлемдердегі асты сызылѓан сµздерге с±раќ ќойыњыз:
1) Hydro power continued to play major role in the
expansion of electrical service in this century, both in North
America and around
the world(3).
2)The majority of power plants involved large dams,
which flooded vast areas (2).
3.Мєтінді пайдалана
отырып мына сµйлемдерді толыќтырыњыз:
1.
Thomas Edison
invented … .
2.
Hydro-electric power stations produce … .
3.
Hydro-electric power
plants can supply … .
4.
It
is not
easy for developers … .
4.Мына
сµйлемдерді аѓылшын тіліне
аударыњыз (Past Tenses)
1.
Алѓашќы су
дµњгелектері Фокс µзенінде
пайдаланылды.
2.
Алѓашќы су
электр станциясы Ниагара
сарќырамасында салынды.
3.
Электр станциясыныњ кµбею оѓан деген
с±раныстан туындады.
4.
Егер
де єлемде 1950 ж электр энергиясына деген с±раныс саѓатына
бір триллилон болса, ол 1990 ж
он екі есеге µсті.
5.Берілген
сµздер мен сµз тіркестерін
пайдалана отырып су электр
станциясыныњ ќ±рылысын
суреттењіз:
river; dam; hydroturbine runner; to flow; to
rotate; a generator; water supply; a blade;
6.Мына шағын мєтіннен кейбір грамматикалыќ ќателерді табыњыз:
Electric power plants
The history of electrical power have
been characterized by a
steadily increasing rate
of power consumption. Electric
power is generate at electric power plants. The main unit of an electric power
plant comprise a prime mover and the generate
which it rotates. There is many various
sources of energy which are required to actuate the prime mover. According to the kind of energy
used by the prime mover plants
is divide with groups. Termal,
water-power and wind.
7.Мына таблицаны толтырыњыз:
Power
plants |
Main
units (devices) |
Source
of energy |
Hydro
power plant |
Generator… |
|
Nuclear
power plant |
|
|
Thermal
power plant |
|
|
8.В
тобынан А тобындаѓы сµздердіњ синонимін
кµрсетіњіз:
A.1
to produce; 2.to unveil; 3. to complete; 4.contemporary; 5.to supply; 6. an
impact.
B.
1 to finish; 2. to provide; 3.to invent; 4. to generate; 5. up-to-date;
6.
an influence.
Olive oil power plants
could give Opec
the slip
Мєтінді оќымас
б±рын мына сµздерді сµздікті
пайдалана отырып
аударыњыз:
liquid n. сұйықтық
utility n …
residue v
drop n
obvious adj.
fuel n
tricky
to supply
v
meaning n
get
rid off v
tempt v
press v
1.Now
olive oil, the
golden liquid on
which commercial empires,
to say nothing of the
Mediterranean diet, have
been built, is
about to get
yet another use.
2.Endesa,
one of Spain’s biggest utilities,
has announced plans
to build two
olive oil-fired power
station at a
cost of almost
$40m. Well, the
fuel is not
quite olive oil.
It’s the solid
residue – left after every
drop of oil
has been pressed
from the fruit.
At
a time when the other
stuff that comes
out of places such as
the North Sea,
the Middle East
and some of
the less hospitable
parts of Russia
is heading for
$30 a barrel , Endesa’s
initiative has obvious
commercial potential.
3. It
is environmentally friendly,
too. The fibrous
mass that is
orujo has a
high thermal value when burnt,
but it otherwise tricky for
olive growers to
get rid off.
Spain
is handily placed
as a provider of orujo.
It has nearly 200m olive trees,
making it
the world’s largest
producer of olive
oil – and consequently of
fuel for the
new power plants.
4. They
will be built in
Jaen and Cuidad
Real, at the
heart of Spain’s
olive – growing region, and
when they come
into operation in
the second half
of next year
they will produce
32 megawatts, or
enough to supply
100,000 people. They will be
the first power
stations in the
world to use
olive residues to
generate electricity.
5.If
the technology turns
out to be a commercial
success Spain’s neighbours – olive oil producers all – could
well be tempted
to the follow Endesa’s lead.
That
could give Opec
a whole new
meaning. Instead of
the Organisation of
Oil Exporting Countries
it might find
itself reinvented to
become the Olive
Producers Electricity Cooperative. Now that would
give them something
to think about,
be it in Aberdeen or
Azerbajan.
Mark Milner
1. Мәтінді оқыңыз және көрсетілген бөлікте
берілген негізгі мағлұматты табуға тырысыңыз:
2. Қай сөйлем мәтіннің мазмұнына сәйкес
келеді( False-F; True-T):
a. Doctors are
sure that olive
oil can prevent
heart attacks. - F
b. Two new
power stations will
be built in
Spain.-
c. The fuel
for the power
stations is pure
olive oil.-
d. Spain makes
more olive oil than any
other country.-
e. Similar power
stations already exist
in other countries.-
f. Opec is
going to change
its name.
3.Мына сөздерден
сұраулы сөйлем құрыңыз және
оларға жауап беріңіз:
1.is;
golden; what; liquid? 2.company; has; what; power; in Spain; station; plan; two
olive oil-fired; to build? 3.Endesa’s ;potential; commercial; has; obvious;
initiative; hasn’t it? 4.environmentally; it; too; friendly;is? 5.trees; how;
has; Spain; many? 6. plants; will; and; be; power; where; built; olive oil;
the? 7. will; power; first; they; be; the ;such; station?
4.Мына тақырыпшаларды мәтін мазмұнына сай
етіп реттеп жазыңыз:
1.The
new technology and the new meaning of the organisation
2.Endesa’s
new project
3.Olive
oil power plant in Spain
4.The
new ways of utilizing olive trees
5.Olive
trees and our environment
5.Мєтінді пайдалана отырып берілген сөйлемдерді
аяқтаңыз:
1.Endesa
has plans ….
2.These
power plants are….
3.Spain
decided to build…in ….
4.Olive
oil power plant …produce…
5.They
… the first….
6.Instead
of Opec it might….
6.Мәтіннен “s” жалғауымен берілген
сөздерді табыңыз және функциясын анықтаңыз:
e.g.:
Endesa’s new project – Possessive Case
7.Берілген етістіктерді дұрыс шақта
жазыңыз:
1.Olive
oil (to be ) the golden liquid in the near future.
2.Endesa’s
olive oil power plant (to have) no by-products.
3.These
power plants (to be built) in Spain.
4.At
present Spain (to produce) great amount of olive oil products.
5.This
project (can give) Opec a new meaning.
8.Берілген сөйлемдерді ырықсыз етісте (Passive
Voice) жазыңыз:
1.They
will build the olive oil power plant in Jean and Cuidad Real.
2.These
power plants will generate 32 megawatts elecrtic current.
3.The
engineers put into operation two power
plants.
4.The
government asked Endesa to build the new power station.
5.Olive
oil power plants supply 100,000 people with electricity.
9.Мәтіннен халықаралық терминдерді табыңыз
және олардың синонимдерін беріңіз.
10.Мына сұраққа жауап беріңіз:
According to
the text, why
is it a good idea
for Spain to
build olive oil-fired
power stations ? List
as many reasons
as possible. For example:
The price
of fossil-based oil is
increasing. …
11. Мына етістіктерден зат есім жасаңыз:
provider;
generation; producer; operation; growth; usage; application; knowledge;
movement; requirement;
12.Мына
сөздердің антонимін және синонимін беріңіз:
supply;
utilize; come into operation.
Some General Engineering Subjects
Some new words
define v - анықтау, айқындау
treat v - өңдеу
eat end v -
таралу
deal with v -
айналысу, қарастыру
equation n
- теңестіру
subdivision n
- бөлшек
unity n -
бірлік
extend n -
өлшем
acceleration n
- жылдамдату
rigid adj - қатты
involve v -
қатыстыру, құрамына енгізу
lever n -
рычаг
Мына терминдерге қатысты сөздерді және сөз тіркестерін көрсетіңіз:
Physics
the theory of equations
Mechanics numerical calculations
Arithmetic dimensions, lines …
Algebra static’s, dynamics
Geometry natural phenomena
Some General
Engineering Subjects
Mathematics is the science of space and quantity, concerned with concrete bodies and collections; it is now recognized to be a vast aggregation of deductions from assumptions about pure abstractions.
Mathematics comprises several large branches. The first of these is arithmetic.
Arithmetic is concerned with numbers and numerical
calculations. In elementary arithmetic, operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division are defined and systematized, first with whole
numbers and then with fractions. Higher arithmetic treats these operations more
abstractedly and more generally, and extends the number system to include
complex numbers.
Algebra goes beyond arithmetic by greatly extending the symbolism. In particular, algebra utilizes letters for unknown, or specified, numbers. This makes it possible to deal with known and unknown numbers on an equal footing. A large body of algebra is the theory of equations. If includes systematic studies of equations of the first, second, third and fourth degrees in one unknown. Such equations can always be solved. Equations of the fifth and higher degrees cannot always be solved by algebraic process(i.e. addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and extraction of roots), although the theory guarantees the existence of solutions. The study of equations also includes system of equations involving two or more unknowns. The most important systems are of the first degree, called linear systems. Linear algebra includes also determinants, matrices, vectors and tensors.
Geometry is a vast field of mathematics with many
subdivisions. The basic elements of geometry are points, lines, and planes.
More complicated elements, such as triangles, circles, and cubes, are defined
in terms of the undefined elements. In the 17th century a scheme was
devised for uniting geometry and algebra. This is now known as analytic
geometry, or coordinate geometry.
Physics is the systematic study of natural phenomena
to discover the basic laws governing them. Traditionally physics is divided
into several major topics, namely, mechanics, heat, optics, electricity and
magnetism, atomic physics and nuclear physics. Because of the remarkable unity
of Nature this separation into topics is, to some extent, artificial and only
exists for convenience. Newton is second law, relating action force to
acceleration, and his third law, relating action and reaction, form the basis
of mechanics. Maxwell is equations, which combine in mathematical form the laws
discovered by Ampere, Coulomb and Faraday, form the basis of electricity and
magnetism and optics.
An understating of statistics is necessary to describe
the behaviors of bulk matter and, with the laws of mechanics, electricity and
magnetism, forms the basis of heat and thermodynamics. All the above topics
constitute the realm of classical physics, which reached a high state of
development by the end of the 19th century. Modern physics began
with the work of Planck and the theory of relativity of Einstein, reaching its
climax in the theory of quantum mechanics.
Due
to atomic physics it became possible for Mendeleyev to construct his Periodic
Table of Elements, to predict their properties, and to understand the nature of
atomic spectra.
Mechanics is the oldest branch of physics, dealing
with the state of rest or motion of particles and rigid bodies and with forces
acting on bodies. The subject has three main branches: static dynamics and
fluid mechanics. In statics, the forces acting on the body, or system of
bodies, are so arranged that the body is in equilibrium – it does not move in
any way. Typical problems involve the balancing of weights on a lever, the
stresses and strains on a bridge, and, in hydrostatics, the forces acting on a
body submerged in of floating on a liquid.
1.Мына сөйлемдерге сұрақ қойыңыз:
1.Arithmetic
is concerned with numbers and numerical calculations.
2.Algebra
utilizes letters for unknown, or specified, numbers.
3.The basic
elements of geometry are points, lines, and planes.
4.Physics
studies natural phenomena and discovers the basic laws governing them.
5.Mechanics deals with the state of rest or motion of
particles and rigid bodies and with forces acting on bodies.
2. Мєтінді пайдалана отырып мына сөйлемдерді аяқтаңыз:
… the theory of equation, and …
The major topics of
physics …
Mechanics has three main branches …
More complicated elements of geometry …
Higher arithmetic treats …
3.Мәтіннен Passive Voice
сөйлемді тауып, Active Voice жазыңыз:
e.g.:
Traditionally physics is divided into several major topics. (P.V.)
We divide physics into several major topics. (A.V.)
4.Мәтіннің ішінен мына сөйлемдердің синонимін табыңыз:
field; to invent;
to determine; to spread
main;
e.g.:1.field – branch
5.Мына
терминдердің дефинициясын жазыңыз:
heat; magnetism;
optics; atomic physics.
electricity;
6.Мына атақты ғалымдар туралы мағлұмат беріңіз:
I. Newton; C. A.
Coulomb;
J. Maxwell; M. Faraday;
A. Ampere;
A. Einstein.
e.g.: A. Einstein – a well-known German physicist and
mathematican….
7.Мына етістіктерден сын есім жасаңыз:
Verb |
Adjective(s) |
to
know
|
known |
to complicate |
|
to apply |
|
to act |
|
to use |
|
to solve |
|
to relate |
|
|
|
Metric system and its original
Some new words
measure n. - µлшем ќолдану
work out v. - жете зерттеу
unit n. - бірлік
define v. - аныќтау
divide (into) v. - бµлу
volume n. - кµлем
spread n. - таралу
decimal n.
- ондыќ
however -
біраќ та
adopt v. - ќолдану
compare v. - салыстуру
equal - тењ
· Кµп н‰ктелердіњ орнына мына сµздерді ќойыњыз: to adopt, to
measure, to define.
1. Scientists wanted … units for length and weight.
2. These units are used … the weight.
3. Metric system … in our country. (Passive)
Metric system and its
original.
1. The idea of a universal system of measures and
weights dates from long ago, but it was
realized only two centuries ago. The metric or decimal system was worked out by
the French Academy of science in 1791. I low were the units for length and
weight defined then?
2. Two French scientists who were given the task to
define these units took one fourth of distance from the North Pole to the Equator on the geographical
meridian which is running through Paris (the distance from Dunkirk in France to
Barcelona in Spain ) and divided it into ten million equal parts. One of these
parts was called a metre or “measure”. For shorter measurements the metre was
divided by ten , for longer things the metre was mutilated by tens.
3. It was easy to use the same metre for volume. The
weight of one cubic centimeter of water was called a gramme. Thus the metric system was created.
4. Russian scientists played a great part in the
spreading of the metric system in Russian as in other countries.
5. As far as in 1867 D.I.Mendeleyev addressed Russian
scientists to help to spread the decimal system. D.I.Mendeleyev also worked out
he project of the low about the use of the metric system in Russia.
6. It should be said , however , that up till the end of
the 19thy century different units of measurement were used in various
countries. In our country metric system was adopted in 1918, soon after the
Great October Socialists Revolution. Now it is adopt by most countries. None of
the system of the past can be compared simplicity to that of our days.
1.Мына таќырыптар мєтінніњ ќай абзацтарына
сай келеді:
1. The role of Russian scientists
2. The measurement of liquid
3. The task of scientists
4. The first step Academy of Science
5. Common use units of measurement
6. The great contribution of Russian scientists
2.Д±рыс жауабын
кµрсетіњіз:
1. When was the metric or decimal system worked out?
a. in 1791
b. in 1891
c. in 1797
2. What was two French scientists given to define?
a. the units for electric charge
b. the units for magnetic field intensity
c. the units for length and weight
3. How was the weight of one cubic centimeter of water
called?
a. kilogramme
b. gramme
c. metric ton
4. What was the contribution of Russian scientists?
a. They played a great part in the spreading of the
metric system
b. They played a great part in the making an experiments
c. They played a great part in describing the effect of
metric system
5. What was in our country adopted in 1918?
a. the unit of force in the International Measurement
System
b. the unit of the measurement of radioactivity
c. units of metric system
3.Мына сµйлемдерді
ќазаќ тіліне аударыњыз:
1.
We often use
to measure units of the metric system.
2.
The metric
system is the international system of measures and weights which is based on
the metre and the kilogramme.
3.
The metric
unit of length is the metre.
4.
There is also
another system of measures and weights, the Imperial System, which is based on
the foot and the pound.
4.Мына сµйлемдерді Passive Voice жазыњыз:
1.
The French
Academy of Science worked out the metric or decimal system.
2.
Two French
scientists made an experiment to define
the units for length and weight.
3.
D. I. Mendeleyev
worked out the project of the law about the use of the metric system in Russia.
4.
In the 19th
centry countries used different units of measurement.
5.They divided the metre into 100 centimetres.
5.Мына есептерді шыѓарыњыз:
1.The dimensions of the window are 1*1/3
(one and one third) m. by 1*2/5
(one and two fifths) m.
What is the area of the window?
2.
The area of
the wall is 5 times that of the window area. What is the area of the wall?
6.Мына ќысќартылѓан сµздерге т‰сініктеме беріњіз:
1.
a. c.
2.
d.c.
3.
l.m.t
4.
h.
5.
h.p
6.
m.p.h
7.
t.-
8.
deg
9.
c.
10.v.v.
7.Мєтінге
ќарамастан мына тапсырманы орындањыз:
When |
What |
1791 |
The metric
system was worked by the French Academy of Science. |
1867 |
|
1918 |
|
8.Мына таблицаны
толтырыњыз:
Imperial
System |
Metric System
|
1 inch(in) |
2.540 cm |
1 foot(ft) |
|
1 yard(yd) |
|
1 mile(m) |
|
Transmission Technology
Most transmission-at least most transmission in the local exchange plant-is analog in nature. That is, the signal being transmitted varies continuously, both in frequency and in amplitude. A high-pitched voice mostly contains high frequencies; a low-pitched voice contains low frequencies. A loud voice contains a high-amplitude signal; a soft voice contains a low-amplitude signal.
In
the long-distance network, and more and more in the local exchange plant,
digital transmission is being used. A digital signal is comprised of a stream
of 1s and 0s that portray the analog voice signal by means of a code.
Analog
signals can be combined (i.e., multiplexed) by combining them with a carrier frequency.
When there is more than one channel, this is called frequency division
multiplexing (FDM). FDM was used extensively in the past but now has generally
been replaced with the digital equivalent: time division multiplexing (TDM).
The most popular TDM system is known as tier 1 (T1). In a T1 system, an analog
voice channel is sampled 8,000 times per second, and each sample is encoded
into a 7-bit byte. Twenty-four such channels are mixed on these two copper
pairs and transmitted at a bit rate of
1.544 megabits per second . T1 remains an important method of
transmitting voice and data in the PSTN (see Figure 4).
Such a
digital transmission scheme (and certainly there are modifications of it that
improve efficiency, capacity, or quality, etc.) works hand in glove with the
digital-switching schemes we talked about previously. Those 1s and 0s need not
be transmitted through an actual circuit in that switch; rather, one can simply
turn on and off the various electronic devices that make up that switch.
Thus a
talking path (i.e., a switched circuit) in the PSTN can be either analog or
digital or a combination thereof. In fact, a digital signal can transmitted
over a packet-switched network as easily as a circuit-switched network. Now if
we consider the next step, we see that digitized voice is not very different
from data, and if data can be transmitted over a packed network, then so can
digitized voice. This, of course, is now known as voice over the Internet. The
challenge, of course, is to get the transmitted signal to the destination fast
enough. After all, this may well be a time-sensitive voice conversation. A
second challenge is to get each packet, which is a small piece of a voice
conversation, to the destination in the proper order. Progress is being made,
and we can well believe that packet switching will play an important role in
the PSTN of tomorrow.
1.̸òiííåí
áàðëûº
àáðèâèàòóðàëàðäû
òàóûï, îëàðäû»
ìà¹ûíàñûí
ò¾ñiíäiði»iç.
2.̸òiííåí
òåðìèíäåðäi
òàáû»ûç.
Îëàðäû êàçຠòiëiíå
àóäàðû»ûç.
3.̸òiíäå
ºîëäàíûë¹àí
òåðìèíäåðäi
ïàéäàëàíûï 10
ñ¼éëåì
º½ðàñòûðû»ûç.
ʼðøi»içãå,
¼çi»içäi» ºàçàºøà
í½ñºà»ûçäû
à¹ûëøûí
òiëiíå
àóäàðó¹à áåði»iç,
ñîäàí êåéií
ðîëüäåði»içäi
àóûñòûðû»ûç.
Broadband Access and Service
Transmission in the telecommunications networks of
today is, more and more, digital in nature, and the transmission medium of
choice is fiber. «Digital,» however, does no more than imply a string of 1s and 0s racing through the network. But
how are these 1s and 0s to be arranged? At what speed are they to travel? What
route should they take? Answers to questions such as these have taken many
forms and have made for the most complicated aspect of the telecommunications
business.
There has
never been a scarcity of coding schemes
in the industry. Starting with Morse code, going to the Baudot code, then the
ASCII code, we have seen each proving for better transmission and higher
quality. In this section we will discuss the most popular and important three
codes.
SONET
SONET
is a standard for optical telecommunications transport. The SONET standard is expected to provide the
transport infrastructure for worldwide telecommunications for at least the next
two or three decades. It defines a technology for carrying many signals of
different capacities through a
synchronous optical hierarchy. The standard specifies a byte-interleaved
multiplexing scheme. The synchronous optical hierarchy mentioned is shown in
table2.
The SONET standards govern not only rates, but also interface parameters; formats; multiplexing methods; and operations, administration, maintenance, and provisioning (OAM and P) for high-speed transmission. We most often hear of SONET rings in which fiber strands are strung around a metropolitan area in a ring configuration. The system is designed so that transmission can take place in either direction; should there be a fault at any one location, transmission will immediately take place in the opposite direction. That is, the system is self-healing.
ATM
Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) is a high-performance switching and multiplexing technology that utilizes fixed-length packets to carry different types of traffic. Information is formatted into fixed-length cells consisting of 48 bytes (8 bits per byte) of payload and 5 bytes of cell header. The fixed cell size guarantees that time-critical information (e.g., voice or video ) is not adversely affected by long data frames or packets. Of course, if the cells were longer in length the system would be more efficient, because the header would take up a smaller percentage of the total cell.
Multiple streams of traffic can be multiplexed on each physical facility and can be managed so as to send the streams to many different destination. This enables cost savings through a reduction in the number of interfaces and facilities required to construct a network.
ADSL
Asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) is, essentially, a modem that employs a sophisticated coding scheme. This coding scheme permits transmission over copper pairs at rates as high as 6 Mbps for distances of 9,000 to 12,000 feet. Speeds of this magnitude bring to mind television signals; a 6-Mbps channel can easily handle a television movie.
ADSL
succeeds because it takes advantage of the fact that most of its target applications
(video-on-demand, home shopping, Internet access, etc.) function perfectly well with a relatively low upstream data rate – hence
the word asymmetric. LECs are now using ADSL as an access technology for their
television businesses and for Internet
access.
1.̸òiííåí
àëûí¹àí
ñ¼ëåìäåðäi
àÿºòà»ûç.
Îëàðäû ºàçàº
òiëiíå
àóäàðû»ûç.
1. Transmission in the telecommunications networks of today is, more and more, … in nature.
2. What … should they take?
3. There has never been … of coding schemes in the industry.
4. The SONET … is expected to provide … for worldwide telecommunications for at least two or three decades.
5. We most often hear of SONET … in which … … are strung around a metropolitan area in a … configuration.
6. Information is formatted into fixed-length … consisting of 48 bytes (8 bits per byte) of … and 5 bytes of … header.
7. Of course, if the … were longer in length the system would be more …, because the … would take up a smaller … of the total cell.
8. Multiple … of … can be … on each physical facility and can be managed so as send the … many different … .
9. Asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) is, essentially, a … that employs a sophisticated … scheme.
10. Speeds of this … bring to mind
television … ; a 6-Mbps channel can easily … a television movie.
11. LECs are now using ADSL as an … technology for their television businesses and for Internet … .
1.̸òiííåí
áàðëûº
ºûñºàðòóëàðäû
òàóûï, æàçû»ûç.
Îëàðäû» iøiíåí
ºàéñûñû
á½ðûííàí
òàíûñ, àë
ºàéñûñû æà»à
åêåíií
àéòû»ûç.
2.²ûñºàðòóëàðû
áàð
ñ¼éëåìäåðäi
ºàçຠòiëiíå
àóäàðû»ûç.
3.̸òiííi»
æîñïàðûí
º½ðû»ûç.
Wireless
The first commercially available radio and telephone system, known as improved mobile telephone service (IMTS), was put into service in 1946. This system was quite unsophisticated – but then there was no solid state electronics available.
With IMTS,
a tall transmitter tower was erected near the center of a metropolitan area.
Several assigned channels were transmitted and received from the antenna atop
this tower. Any vehicle within range could attempt to seize one of those
channels and complete a call. Unfortunately, the number of channels made
available did not come even close to satisfying the need. To make matters
worse, as the metropolitan area grew, more power was applied to the transmitted
or receiver, the reach was made greater, and still more subscribers were unable
to get dial tone.
The
solution to this problem was cellular radio. Metropolitan areas were divided
into cells of no more than a few miles in diameter , each cell operating on a
set of frequencies (send and receive) that differed from the frequencies of the
adjacent cells. Because the power of the transmitter in a particular cell was
kept at a level just high enough to serve that cell, these same sets of
frequencies could be used at several places within the metropolitan area.
Beginning in 1983, nonwireline carrier, were given a franchise to operate in
each major territory.
Two
characteristics of cellular systems were important to their usefulness. First,
the systems controlled handoff. As subscribers drove out of one cell and into
another, their automobile radios, in conjunction with sophisticated electronic
equipment at the cell sites (also known as base stations) and the telephone
switching offices (also known as mobile telephone switching office [MTSO] ),
transferred from one frequency set to another with no audible pause. Second,
systems were also designed to locate particular subscribers by paging them in
each of the cells. When the vehicle in which a paged subscriber was riding was
located, the equipment assigned sets of frequencies to it, and conversation
could begin .
The
initial transmission technology used between the vehicle and the cell site was
analog in nature. It is known as advanced mobile phone service (AMPS). The
analog scheme used was called frequency division multiple access (FDMA).
But the
age of digital transmission was upon us, and many companies operating in this
arena concluded that a digital transmission
scheme would be preferred. The result was time division multiple access
(TDMA). In Europe, the selected scheme was an adaptation of the TDMA used in
the United States, and it was called group special mobile. Since then, the
name has been changed to global system
for mobile communications (GSM).
As if that
was not enough, a third group of companies determined that a special
spread-spectrum or frequency-hopping scheme would be even better, and this also
was developed and trailed. This is called code division multiple access (CDMA).
Thus, there are at least four schemes that may be used for communications
between a vehicle and the cell site. Communications between the cell site and
the MTSO utilized more conventional techniques, such as microwave, copper
pairs, or fiber optics.
The
continuing growth of cellular communications (there are presently about 20,000
new subscribers signing on each day), led government and industry in the United
States to search for additional ways to satisfy the obvious need not only for
ordinary telephone service but also for special services and features, smaller
telephones, and cellular phone use. This search led to the PCS industry.
Additional frequency bands were allocated for their use, and rather than assign
them to the first comers or by way of a lottery, the FCC auctioned them off
through a sophisticated bidding contest that brought the US treasury billions
of dollars.
Geosynchronous
satellites represent yet another way of providing wireless communications.
These satellites, located 22,300 miles above the earth, revolve around the
earth once each 24 hours – the same as the earth itself. Consequently they
appear to be stationary. Communications between two places on earth can take
place by using these satellites; one frequency band is used for the unlink, and
another for the downlink. Such satellite systems are excellent for the
transmission of data, but they leave something to be desired for voice
communications . This is a result of the vast distance and the time it takes
for an electrical signal to make an earth-satellite-earth round trip. That time
amounts to one quarter of a second. A reply from the called subscriber takes
another quarter of a second, and the resultant half a second is definitely
noticeable. Conseqently, voice communications is seldom carried via
geosynchronous satellites.
Yet
another wireless telecommunications technology is the low earth orbit (LEO)
satellite system. LEOs are satellites that communicate directly with handheld
telephones on earth. Because these satellites are relatively low – less than
900 miles – they move across the sky quite rapidly.
In a LEO
system the communications equipment on a satellite acts much like the cell site
of a cellular system. It catches the call from earth and usually passes it to
an earth-based switching system. Because of the speed of the satellite, it is
frequently necessary to hand off a particular call to a second satellite just
rising over the horizon. This is akin to a cellular system, except that in this
case it is the cell site that is moving rather than the subscriber.
Several
systems are now in the planning stage, and in fact many satellites have
already been launched. The most noted is Iridium, created by Motorola, which
would utilize sixty-six satellites. A
second system , called Globalstar, would employ forty-eight satellites. There
are at least two or three others that are well advanced in terms of
preparations to launch.
1.Êåëåñi
ñ½ð຺à
æàóàï áåði»iç:
1.
When was the
first commercially available radio and telephone system put into service?
2.
What problem
did cellular radio solve?
3.
Which
characteristics of cellular systems were important?
4.
What
technology was used between the vehicle and the cell site?
5.
How many
schemes may be used between the vehicle and the cell site?
6.
How did the
PCS industry appear?
7.
What do
geosynchronous satellites represent?
8.
What is LEO?
9.
What are the
most noted satellites?
̸òiíäi
îºûï,
àìàëäàðäû
îðûíäà»ûç.
Current Cellular Standards
The cellular solution, originally designed
by Bell Telephone laboratories in the 1970's makes use of multiple fixed
stations. Each station, located in what is
termed a "cell" services subscriber stations within a limited
geographical area. Cellular
companies are each granted 25 Mhz of the spectral division in the 800-900 Mhz region, each split between the two
directions of communications. Typical analog systems such as AMPS employ
FDMA schemes that divide the spectral allocations into uniform frequency
channels in the range of 25-30 kHz wide.
Applying simple algebra shows the approximate number of channels to be around 416. This number, although appearing
somewhat large, is rather small with
respect to data communications.
Different types of cellular systems employ
various methods of" multiple access",
meaning that multiple, simultaneous users can be supported. These users share a common pool of radio channels and
can gain access to any channel. Just as each telephone call is
granted a specific line for discourse, each subscriber
is assigned a unique channel to propagate data transmission. Only one subscriber at a time is assigned to each
channel; no other conversations can access
it until the call is completed. These channels are a limited resource of cellular
companies, <as are the number of phone lines for Ma Bell. Solutions to
achieve greater capacity are central to cellular principles.
Spectral allocations are limited for each
cell, due in part to regulatory agencies
limiting the bandwidth in order for communication companies to create highly efficient solutions. This spectral
efficiency is measured in Erlangs per unit service area, per MHz. Quite
simply, this dimensionless unit of telephone traffic
intensity, known as the Erlang blocking probability (typically 0.05), is equal to calling rate multiplied by the average
call length. This shows the capacity
for a channel to be completely occupied for some given time frame, with higher values (representing higher channel
usage. Due to the explosive growth of
the cellular industry exceeding initial predictions of analysts, subscribers in many urban cities often experience
"blocking" with the trend increasing
as the number of wireless LAN's and personal cellular radios continue to grow. Anyone who has tried to make a
call and has been prevented or "blocked" will understand this
concept. One in six Los Angeles subscribers experiences
blocking during peak hours. Many subscribers also experience ''dropped calls" when leaving one cell and
moving into another when the new cell
can't allocate a carrier channel to the mobile. Consequently this leads to poor
customer relations which forces the cellular providers to arrive at solutions
that achieve high spectral efficiency to increase cell capacity.
Central to the
cellular concept is frequency reuse, which is critically dependent upon the
fact that the carrier wave power decays with increasing distance. With this
information, and some physics (which we won't get into), a cellular division of
frequency channels can be implemented. It's the same rationale when
travel ling long distances: your favorite radio show on a familiar frequency is
not the same in each city. The channel is allocated to another radio station far enough
apart where signals won't interfere with each other. By reusing channels in multiple cells, the
system can grow without geographical limits.
Here each cell
represents an allocation of channels where no adjacent cells share common
frequencies, with a typical maximum subscriber load at about 350 users.
This idealized depiction is a hypothetical representation of true cellular systems that
is good for modeling, but unfortunately not substantial enough for real world implementations of
cellular technology.
1.Ò¼ìåíäåãi
ñ¼ëåìäåðäi
ºàçຠòiëiíå
àóäàðû»ûç
1.
Applying simple algebra shows the approximate number
of channels in the range of 25 - 30 kHz wide.
2.
Only one subscriber at a time is assigned to each
channel, no other conversations
can access it until the call is completed.
3.
Solutions
to achieve greater capacity are central to cellular principles.
4.
Due to the explosive growth of the cellular industry
exceeding initial predictions of analysts, subscribers in many urban
cities often experience "blocking" with the trend increasing as the
number of wireless LAN's and personal cellular radios
continue to grow.
5.
By reusing channels in multiple cells, the system can
grow without geographical limits.
2.Ò¼ìåíäå
áåðiëãåí
ñ½ðàºòàð¹à
æàóàï áåði»iç.
When was the
cellular solution designed?
What schemes do typical analog systems
employ?
What do multiple
access methods mean?
How many subscribers
are assigned to each channel at a time?
How is spectral
efficiency measured?
What do subscribers
experience?
What does frequency
reuse depend upon?
̸òiíäi
îºû»ûç æ¸íå
ñ½ðàºòàð¹à
æàóàï áåði»iç.
1.
What has led
to a rapid development of the technology?
2.
When was the
first commercial CDMA network installed in Hong Kong?
3.
What was
happened since the installation of the first commercial network in Hong Kong?
4.
Why is the
widespread acceptance of the network likely to be accelerated?
5.
What is the
trend with the new CDMA networks?
6.
How is the
building performed?
Commercial
Application
The technical
advantage associated with the usage of CDMA technology has led to a repeat
development of the technology from its conception to use in full- service
telecommunication networks. Despite the claims from advocates of existing
technology that CDMA was a theory that looked good on paper but could never be
refined enough to be applied, the technology was researched and pursued. By
1991, Qualcomm Corporation had demonstrated it first example of CDMA technology
in rather promising field trial. By proving that the technology could in fact
be applied, Qualcomm effectively started the CDMA bandwagon. The next year saw
CDMA’s acceptance by the technology. By the year 1995 the first commercial CDMA
network was installed in Hong Kong- making CDMA’s maturation period less then
five years, A significantly shorter time period then for most other
communication standards.
Since the
installation of the first network in Hong Kong, the major telecommunications
corporations have been feverishly shaking their claims in the future CDMA
market, especially in the United States. 1996 saw FCC auctions for the
frequency ranges used by CDMA networks, and several companies have been trying
to capture the most profitable regions of the country for their coverage.
Several pockets of CDMA coverage were established in the United States a late
1996, and 1997, and 1998 promised to be the years of major construction for the
infrastructure. Sprint claims that the CDMA network will be come the
“replacement for current cellular technology”, and many companies are working
on making that statement reality. Technology enthusiasts and those who live in
the center of the initial CDMA coverage areas will probably take advantage of
the services during this first year of service, but it will probably be at
least 1998 before it becomes widespread enough to gain widespread public
acceptance.
The widespread
acceptance of the network is likely to be accelerated nearly as much by the
change in the typical conventions of cellular service as by the improved
quality due to the new technology. The highly competitive market has caused
companies to place more importance on what consumers see as a barrier to using
cellular and wireless network. Consumers will be attracted to the new networks
by the promise of increased call quality, range privacy and all of the other
benefits of CDMA technology, but may likely be convinced by the changes that
have been made from the way cellular service has typically been billed. One of
the major problems that consumers report with existing cellular service is the
ambiguity related to the billing. A side from being expensive, it is often
unpredictable what any particular call will cost roaming fees and long distance
fees very in every location and it is impossible to tell ahead of time what the
rates for any one call will be. The trend with the new CDMA networks is to
establish a defined “local calling air” and bill any minutes outside of that
air at a constant amount of money per minute, typical 50 or 60 cents. Also, user of the networks will be able to
carry they account balanced any time from they phones, configure the network to
notify them when a certain balance is exceeded, and program the phones to stop
working after a maximum balance has been reached. Other subtle differences such
as not charging for airtime if a call cannot be completed are changes in police
that the likely to effect the purchasing decisions of consumers.
Current
cellular service providers cover only relatively small geographic areas, which
leads to billing nightmares if a phone serviced by one company is used in an
area serviced by another. While the phone can still be used, the “foreign”
company bills the original service provider who in turn bills the customer,
with unpredictable rates and fees. Sprint’s Personal Communications Services
(PCS) division currently plans to operate a network that will cover the entire
nation. Sprint currently hold licenses to operate this network in 33
metropolitan areas, plans to add coverage for 59 more cities in 1997, and fill
in the remaining areas in the years to follow. Their own estimates place the
potential coverage area between 190 and 260 million people. Such a nationwide
network would alleviate many of the difficulties currently associated with
using cellular technology outside of one’s own local coverage area.
1.̸òiííåí
êåëåñi ñ¼ç
òiðêåñòåðiíå
à¹ûëøûí ýêâèâàëåíòòåðií
òàáû»ûç:
Òåõíèêàëûº ì¾ìêiíäiêòåð; ½ÿëû áàéëàíûñ ºûçìåòòåði; æàºñàðòûë¹àí ñàïà; åãiñòiê æà¹äàéûíäà ñûíàºòàí ¼òêiçó; áàéëàíûñ ñòàíäàðòòàðû; ºàìòó àéìà¹û; îðíû¹ó êåçå»i (ïåðèîäû); áîëæàíûëìàéòûí; ºàëààðàëûº áàéëàíûñºà ò¼ëåì; áà¹à; êå» òàðàë¹àí; æèiëiê äèàïîçîíû; ºî»ûðàó øàëûñòàðäû» åñåï øîòû.
2.̸òiííåí
àëûí¹àí
êåëåñi ñ¼ëåìäåðäi
àÿºòà»ûç.
Îëàðäû ºàçàº
òiëiíå
àóäàðû»ûç.
1.
The next year
saw the CDMA acceptance…
2.
Sprint claims
that the CDMA network…
3.
Technology
enthusiasts and those who live in the center…
4.
One of the
major problems that consumers report…
5.
Their own
estimates place the potential coverage…
̸òiíäi
ºàçຠòiëiíå
àóäàðû»ûç.
THE HEALTH OF THE OZONE LAYER
If
we were to assume the role of a physician in order t diagnose the health of the
ozone layer, no doubt we would state that our patient is in very poor health, and
that the patient’s condition is getting worse.
·
In
1995, 1996 and now in 1997 we have experienced record ozone depletions over
both the Southern and Northern hemispheres.
·
The
1996 Antarctic ozone hole reached a record 10 million square miles-an area greater
than the total surface air of North America, and twice the size of Europe.
·
During
November an December 1996, ozone levels over Northern Europe and the north
Atlantic were 20% lower than the average measurements between 1957 and 1970
more than 25% ozone depletion was measured over some populated areas.
·
Following
the trend, in March 1997, the ozone layer was 15 to 25 percent thinner over the
arctic than is was a year earlier and environment Canada reported a record of
nearly 40% ozone depletion over the North West Territories.
·
The
European communication – Environment and climate program reported in May, 1997,
than “For the third winter in succession, record low temperatures in the
Arctic’s lower stratosphere, coupled with the presents of man-made pollutants,
have resulted in … up to 40% ozone depletion in the Northern Hemisphere… (with)
total ozone as low as 270 Dobson Units near the pole during March this year.”
Of further concern is the recurrence
of externally cold spring time temperatures over the Arctic which is
precondition for increased ozone depletion. The European Commission noted that “Analyses of stratospheric temperature
data shows that the stratosphere during March 1997 was by far the coldest on
record. The average monthly mean over the Pole was some six degrees lower then
the previous minimum average. These very low temperatures in the Arctic
springtime for the third successive year give rise to the concern that they may
be part of a longer-term trend. It is important to understand whether, for
example, this represents part of changes induced by chemistry-climate
feedback.’
Concurrently scientist are reporting a alarming date due to
increases of UV-B radiation. For example, scientist have now for years that
UV-B radiation reduces the reproduction of phytoplankton the micro organism at
ht bottom of the marine food chain which are vital to the survival of marine
animals; but to this past year they have also found species of fish with UV-B
induced skin cancer and DNA damage. In other findings, than 1996 UNEP
Scientific Assessment states that “recent studies suggest that potentially
detrimental effects of UV-B radiation evergreen woody plants may accumulate
from year to year… and that there accumulating and intensified adverse effects
on plants from generation to generation.” In other words, UV-B damage is
cumulative and passed on from one generation to the next.
The environmental
imperative has always been, and continues to be, to stop using all ozone depleting substances as quickly as
possible without resorting to the use of substances, such as HFCs , that
significantly exacerbate crises of global warming and the toxification of the
environment.
The alarming state of ozone layer
dictates that it is essential from both a short term and a long term
perspective, that the Parties to the Protocol adopted polices that aim to
eradicate they use of all ozone destroyers on an emergency time scale.
Greenpeace calculations show that emergency phase out of ozone depleting
substances could accelerate recovery of the ozone layer by nearly fifteen years
(to 2026) and this would reduce ozone depletion by nearly 40%.
The goal must be not only to minimize
further ozone loss, but ultimately, to facilitate-as much as it is humanly
possible- the earliest recovering of the ozone layer.
Тапсырма
Æî¹àðûäà
àòàï
¼òêåííåí
áàñºà,
ºîðøà¹àí îðòàíû
ºîð¹àóäû» á¾ãiíãi
òà»äà¹û
ìà»ûçäû
ì¸ñåëåëåði
ºàíäàé? Îë
òóðàëû ¼ç
ê¼ðøiíi»çáåí ïiêið
àëìàñû»ûç.
²àçàºñòàíäà¹û
æ¸íå á¾êië
¸ëåìäåãi
ºîðøà¹àí
îðòàíû
ºîð¹àó¹à
àðíàë¹àí
ì¸ñåëåëåðäi
ºûñºàøà
áàÿíäàï áåði»iç.
Мазмұны
Striving for Energy self-sufficiency………………………………………
History of Hydro Power…………………………………………………….
Olive
oil power plants
could give Opec
the slip……………………………
Some General Engineering
Subjects………………………………………………
Metric system and its
original………………………………………………………
Transmission Technology…………………………………………………..
Broadband
Access and Service……………………………………………………..
Wireless……………………………………………………………………….
Current
Cellular Standards………………………………………………………...
Commercial Application……………………………………………………
The Health of the Ozone Layer……………………………………………
Жоспар, 2003
Умит Жунусбековна Жумабекова
Сабит Муталович
Нарбаев
Ағылшын
тілі
Техникалық
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сөйлеу іскерліктерін дамытуға
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